@techreport{Clarkeetal2022,
  title={{Schools as a Safety-net: The Impact of School Closures and Reopenings on Rates of Reporting of\
 Violence Against Children}},
  author={Damian Clarke and Pilar Larroulet and Daniel Pailañir and Daniela Quintana},
  year={2022},
  number={2206.14612},
  institution={arXiv},
  type={econ.GN},
}

@article{bhalotra2024,
  title={{Dynamic impacts of lockdown on domestic violence: Evidence from multiple policy shifts in Chile}},
  author={Bhalotra, Sonia and Brito, Emilia and Clarke, Damian and Larroulet, Pilar and Pino, Francisco},
  journal={Review of Economics and Statistics},
  pages={1--29},
  year={2024},
  publisher={MIT Press One Rogers Street, Cambridge, MA 02142-1209, USA journals-info~…}
}

@article{Gonzalez2020,
title = {{Collective action in networks: Evidence from the Chilean student movement}},
journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
volume = {188},
pages = {104220},
year = {2020},
issn = {0047-2727},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104220},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272720300840},
author = {Felipe González},
keywords = {Collective action, Networks, Protests},
abstract = {Hundreds of thousands of high-school students skipped school during the 2011 student movement in Chile to protest and reform educational institutions. Using administrative data of daily school attendance I present causal evidence of complementarities in school skipping decisions within student networks in national protest days. Identification relies on partially overlapping networks and within school exposure to an inaugural college protest. A structural estimation of a coordination game with incomplete information also supports the existence of these complementarities. Importantly, I show that skipping school imposed significant educational costs on students but it also helped to shift votes towards non-traditional candidates more aligned with their demands.}
}

@ARTICLE{Cuestaetal2020,
title = {{Distorted quality signals in school markets}},
author = {Cuesta, José Ignacio and González, Felipe and Larroulet Philippi, Cristian},
year = {2020},
journal = {Journal of Development Economics},
volume = {147},
number = {C},
pages = {S0304387820301073},
abstract = {Information plays a key role in markets with consumer choice. In education, data on schools is often gathered through standardized testing. However, the use of these tests has been controversial because of distortions in the metric itself. We study the Chilean educational market and document that low-performing students are underrepresented in test days, generating distortions in school quality information. These distorted quality signals affect parents' school choice and induce misallocation of public programs. These results provide novel evidence for the costs that distortions in quality signals generated by standardized tests in accountability systems impose on educational markets.},
keywords = {Accountability; Schools; Quality; Disclosure; Choice;},
url = {https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:eee:deveco:v:147:y:2020:i:c:s0304387820301073}
}

@article{Celhayetal2024,
title = {{When a strike strikes twice: Massive student mobilizations and teenage pregnancy in Chile}},
journal = {Journal of Development Economics},
volume = {170},
pages = {103274},
year = {2024},
issn = {0304-3878},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2024.103274},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304387824000233},
author = {Pablo A. Celhay and Emilio Depetris-Chauvin and Cristina Riquelme},
keywords = {Teenage pregnancy, Risky behavior, Student protests, Human capital},
abstract = {This paper empirically studies the impact of massive and sudden school closures following the 2011 nationwide student strike in Chile on teenage pregnancy. We observe an average increase of 2.7% in teenage pregnancies in response to temporary high school shutdowns, equal to 1.9 additional pregnancies per lost school day. The effect diminishes after three quarters since the strike’s onset. The effects are predominantly driven by first-time mothers aligned with high-school absenteeism periods and are unrelated to the typical seasonality of teenage fertility or pregnancies in other age groups. Additionally, we document that the strike had a larger disruptive role by affecting students’ educational trajectories, evidenced by a persistent increase in dropout rates and a reduction in college admission test take-up for both female and male students.}
}

@article{GonzalezPrem2022,
    author = {González, Felipe and Prem, Mounu},
    title = "{Police Violence, Student Protests, and Educational Performance}",
    journal = {The Review of Economics and Statistics},
    pages = {1-46},
    year = {2022},
    abstract = "{We study the protest behavior of teenagers linked to a student killed by a stray bullet coming from a policeman in Chile. We use administrative data to follow the schoolmates of the victim and those living nearby the shooting in hundreds of protest and non-protest days. We find that police violence causes lower protest participation in street rallies but more adherence to test boycotts. These effects appear among schoolmates of the victim and not among students living nearby the killing. Negative educational consequences suffered by the schoolmates combined with previous results suggest that psychological mechanisms are a plausible explanation.}",
    issn = {0034-6535},
    doi = {10.1162/rest_a_01186},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/rest\_a\_01186},
    eprint = {https://direct.mit.edu/rest/article-pdf/doi/10.1162/rest\_a\_01186/2008500/rest\_a\_01186.pdf},
}

@article{Cattaneoetal2016,
author = {Cattaneo, Matias D. and Keele, Luke and Titiunik, Roc\'{\i}o and Vazquez-Bare, Gonzalo},
title = {{Interpreting Regression Discontinuity Designs with Multiple Cutoffs}},
journal = {The Journal of Politics},
volume = {78},
number = {4},
pages = {1229-1248},
year = {2016},
doi = {10.1086/686802},
}

@TECHREPORT{Sandneretal2020,
title = {{Preventing Child Maltreatment: Beneficial Side Effects of Public Childcare Provision}},
author = {Sandner, Malte and Thomsen, Stephan and Gonzalez, Libertad},
year = {2020},
institution = {Barcelona School of Economics},
type = {Working Papers},
number = {1207},
abstract = {We investigate the impact of public childcare provision on the incidence of child maltreatment. For identification, we exploit a government reform that expanded early childcare in Germany, generating large temporal and spatial variation in childcare coverage at the county level. Using high-quality administrative data covering all reported cases of child maltreatment in Germany by county and year, our results show that an increase in childcare slots by one percentage point in a county led to a decline of 1.8\% in child maltreatment cases. Our findings suggest that the provision of universal public childcare may be more cost-effective that previously thought.},
keywords = {child maltreatment; child abuse and neglect; early childcare},
url = {https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:bge:wpaper:1207}
}


@article{hillis2016global,
  title={{Global Prevalence of Past-year Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review and Minimum Estimates}},
  author={Hillis, Susan and Mercy, James and Amobi, Adesola and Kress, Howard},
  journal={Pediatrics},
  year={2016},
  volume={137},
  number={3},
  pages={e20154079},
  doi={10.1542/peds.2015-4079},
  eprint={https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4079},
  pmid={26810785},
  pmcid={PMC6496958},
}

@misc{unesco2022map,
  title={{UNESCO map on school closures}},
  author={UNESCO},
  year={2022},
  howpublished={\url{https://en.unesco.org/covid19/educationresponse}},
}

@misc{MDS2021,
  title={{Data Social: Tasa bruta de asistencia (educación parvularia)}},
  author={{Ministerio de Desarrollo Social y Familia}},
  year={2021},
  howpublished={Published online at \url{https://datasocial.ministeriodesarrollosocial.gob.cl/fichaIndicador/635/2}.  Accessed 10/05/2023.},
}

@article{Hillisetal2016,
    author = {Hillis, Susan and Mercy, James and Amobi, Adaugo and Kress, Howard},
    title = "{Global Prevalence of Past-year Violence Against Children: A Systematic Review and Minimum Estimates}",
    journal = {Pediatrics},
    volume = {137},
    number = {3},
    year = {2016},
    month = {03},
    abstract = "{Evidence confirms associations between childhood violence and major causes of mortality in adulthood. A synthesis of data on past-year prevalence of violence against children will help advance the United Nations’ call to end all violence against children.Investigators systematically reviewed population-based surveys on the prevalence of past-year violence against children and synthesized the best available evidence to generate minimum regional and global estimates.We searched Medline, PubMed, Global Health, NBASE, CINAHL, and the World Wide Web for reports of representative surveys estimating prevalences of violence against children.Two investigators independently assessed surveys against inclusion criteria and rated those included on indicators of quality.Investigators extracted data on past-year prevalences of violent victimization by country, age group, and type (physical, sexual, emotional, or multiple types). We used a triangulation approach which synthesized data to generate minimum regional prevalences, derived from population-weighted averages of the country-specific prevalences.Thirty-eight reports provided quality data for 96 countries on past-year prevalences of violence against children. Base case estimates showed a minimum of 50\\% or more of children in Asia, Africa, and Northern America experienced past-year violence, and that globally over half of all children—1 billion children, ages 2–17 years—experienced such violence.Due to variations in timing and types of violence reported, triangulation could only be used to generate minimum prevalence estimates.Expanded population-based surveillance of violence against children is essential to target prevention and drive the urgent investment in action endorsed in the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda.}",
    issn = {0031-4005},
    doi = {10.1542/peds.2015-4079},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4079},
    note = {e20154079},
    eprint = {https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article-pdf/137/3/e20154079/931987/peds\_20154079.pdf},
}


@TechReport{Gattinietal2014,
  title = {{Comunas de Chile, seg{\'u}n nivel socio-econ{\'o}mico, de salud y desarrollo humano. Revisi\'on 2013}},
  author = {C. Gattini and C. Ch{\'a}vez and D. Albers},
  type = {Informe T\'ecnico},
  institution = {OCHISAP}, 
year = {2014}
}



@article{Agostinelli2022,
title = {{When the great equalizer shuts down: Schools, peers, and parents in pandemic times}},
journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
volume = {206},
pages = {104574},
year = {2022},
issn = {0047-2727},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2021.104574},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272721002103},
author = {Francesco Agostinelli and Matthias Doepke and Giuseppe Sorrenti and Fabrizio Zilibotti},
keywords = {Skill Acquisition, Peer effects, Parenting, Parenting Style, Neighborhood Effects, Covid-19, Pandemics},
abstract = {What are the effects of school closures during the Covid-19 pandemic on children’s education? Online education is an imperfect substitute for in-person learning, particularly for children from low-income families. Peer effects also change: schools allow children from different socio-economic backgrounds to mix together, and this effect is lost when schools are closed. Another factor is the response of parents, some of whom compensate for the changed environment through their own efforts, while others are unable to do so. We examine the interaction of these factors with the aid of a structural model of skill formation. We find that school closures have a large, persistent, and unequal effect on human capital accumulation. High school students from low-income neighborhoods suffer a learning loss of 0.4 standard deviations after a one-year school closure, whereas children from high-income neighborhoods initially remain unscathed. The channels operating through schools, peers, and parents all contribute to growing educational inequality during the pandemic.}
}
@Inbook{Bellei2022,
author="Bellei, Cristi{\'a}n
and Contreras, Mariana
and Ponce, Tania
and Ya{\~{n}}ez, Isabel
and D{\'i}az, Roc{\'i}o
and Vielma, Constanza",
editor="Reimers, Fernando M.",
title={{The Fragility of the School-in-Pandemic in Chile}},
bookTitle="Primary and Secondary Education During Covid-19: Disruptions to Educational Opportunity During a Pandemic",
year="2022",
publisher="Springer International Publishing",
address="Cham",
pages="79--103",
abstract="This chapter examines how Chilean education was affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. Like all school systems worldwide, Chilean education was strongly impacted, with schools closing for nearly the entire academic year, which necessitated an improvised ``distance education.'' This new system faced enormous difficulties, especially in rural sectors and for families that lacked sufficient resources in their homes, which in the case of Chile represent a significant portion of the population. Based on secondary sources and a study conducted by the authors, this chapter begins by describing the fundamental characteristics of Chilean education before continuing with an overview of the principal actions undertaken by public authorities to confront the pandemic in the educational sphere; we then present the (scant) information available on how the suspension of in-person classes affected different school actors and summarize the basic findings of our own study on this topic, whose focus is educational experiences at home. The chapter concludes with some reflections of a more general nature that seek to situate the educational debate triggered by the pandemic in a broader context, concerning the future evolution of the education system.",
isbn="978-3-030-81500-4",
doi="10.1007/978-3-030-81500-4_3",
url="https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-81500-4_3"
}

@article{Vineretal2022,
    author = {Viner, Russell and Russell, Simon and Saulle, Rosella and Croker, Helen and Stansfield, Claire and Packer, Jessica and Nicholls, Dasha and Goddings, Anne-Lise and Bonell, Chris and Hudson, Lee and Hope, Steven and Ward, Joseph and Schwalbe, Nina and Morgan, Antony and Minozzi, Silvia},
    title = {{School Closures During Social Lockdown and Mental Health, Health Behaviors, and Well-being Among Children and Adolescents During the First COVID-19 Wave: A Systematic Review}},
    journal = {JAMA Pediatrics},
    volume = {176},
    number = {4},
    pages = {400-409},
    year = {2022},
    month = {04},
    issn = {2168-6203},
    doi = {10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.5840},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.5840},
    eprint = {https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/articlepdf/2788069/jamapediatrics\_viner\_2022\_rv\_210009\_1648672905.82055.pdf},
}



@article{Angristetal2021,
title = {{Building back better to avert a learning catastrophe: Estimating learning loss from COVID-19 school shutdowns in Africa and facilitating short-term and long-term learning recovery}},
journal = {International Journal of Educational Development},
volume = {84},
pages = {102397},
year = {2021},
issn = {0738-0593},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2021.102397},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S073805932100050X},
author = {Noam Angrist and Andreas {de Barros} and Radhika Bhula and Shiraz Chakera and Chris Cummiskey and Joseph DeStefano and John Floretta and Michelle Kaffenberger and Benjamin Piper and Jonathan Stern},
keywords = {COVID-19, Learning loss, Education, Foundational skills, Recovery},
abstract = {We model learning losses due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the potential for cost-effective strategies to build back better. Data from Early Grade Reading Assessments in Ethiopia, Kenya, Liberia, Tanzania, and Uganda suggest half to over a year’s worth of learning loss. In modeling losses over time, we found that learning deficits for a child in grade 3 could lead to 2.8 years of lost learning by grade 10. While COVID-19 has stymied learning, bold, learning-focused reform consistent with the literature reviewed in this paper—specifically reform on targeted instruction and structured pedagogy—could improve learning even beyond pre-COVID-19 levels.}
}

@article{Engzelletal2021,
author = {Per Engzell  and Arun Frey  and Mark D. Verhagen },
title = {{Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic}},
journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
volume = {118},
number = {17},
pages = {e2022376118},
year = {2021},
doi = {10.1073/pnas.2022376118},
URL = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2022376118},
eprint = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2022376118},
abstract = {School closures have been a common tool in the battle against COVID-19. Yet, their costs and benefits remain insufficiently known. We use a natural experiment that occurred as national examinations in The Netherlands took place before and after lockdown to evaluate the impact of school closures on students’ learning. The Netherlands is interesting as a “best-case” scenario, with a short lockdown, equitable school funding, and world-leading rates of broadband access. Despite favorable conditions, we find that students made little or no progress while learning from home. Learning loss was most pronounced among students from disadvantaged homes. Suspension of face-to-face instruction in schools during the COVID-19 pandemic has led to concerns about consequences for students’ learning. So far, data to study this question have been limited. Here we evaluate the effect of school closures on primary school performance using exceptionally rich data from The Netherlands (n ≈ 350,000). We use the fact that national examinations took place before and after lockdown and compare progress during this period to the same period in the 3 previous years. The Netherlands underwent only a relatively short lockdown (8 wk) and features an equitable system of school funding and the world’s highest rate of broadband access. Still, our results reveal a learning loss of about 3 percentile points or 0.08 standard deviations. The effect is equivalent to one-fifth of a school year, the same period that schools remained closed. Losses are up to 60\% larger among students from less-educated homes, confirming worries about the uneven toll of the pandemic on children and families. Investigating mechanisms, we find that most of the effect reflects the cumulative impact of knowledge learned rather than transitory influences on the day of testing. Results remain robust when balancing on the estimated propensity of treatment and using maximum-entropy weights or with fixed-effects specifications that compare students within the same school and family. The findings imply that students made little or no progress while learning from home and suggest losses even larger in countries with weaker infrastructure or longer school closures.}}

@techreport{KaufmanDiliberti2021,
 title = {{Divergent and Inequitable Teaching and Learning Pathways During (and Perhaps Beyond) the Pandemic: Key Findings from the American Educator Panels Spring 2021 COVID-19 Surveys}},
 author = "Julia H. Kaufman and Melissa Kay Diliberti",
 institution = "RAND Corporation",
 type = "Research Report",
 series = "Research Reports",
 number = "RR-A168-6",
 year = "2021",
 doi = {10.7249/RRA168-6},
 URL = "https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA168-6.html",
}




@techreport{GassmanPinesetal2022,
 title = {{Effects of Daily School and Care Disruptions During the COVID-19 Pandemic on Child Mental Health}},
 author = "Gassman-Pines, Anna and Ananat, Elizabeth and Fitz-Henley, John and Leer, Jane",
 institution = "National Bureau of Economic Research",
 type = "Working Paper",
 series = "Working Paper Series",
 number = "29659",
 year = "2022",
 month = "January",
 doi = {10.3386/w29659},
 URL = "http://www.nber.org/papers/w29659",
 abstract = {The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly affected American children, including disruptions to their care and school settings. Children attending in-person child care or school have contended with unpredictable closures and time in remote school, which in turn is subject to its own types of disruptions (hardware, software, and internet failures). This study investigated the frequency and consequences of disruptions to children’s child care and school arrangements during fall 2020. The study includes a representative sample of hourly service-sector workers parents of a young child from a major U.S. city (N = 679); half are non-Hispanic Black, 23\% are Hispanic; 18\% are non-Hispanic White. Parents were asked to complete 30 days of daily surveys about whether their care and school arrangements went smoothly and as predicted that day, and about their mood, parenting behaviors, and children’s behavior. Results showed that daily disruptions to care and school were common, with families reporting a disruption on 24\% of days. Families with children in remote schooling experienced more frequent disruption than families with children in in-person care or school. For all families, care or school disruptions strongly predicted worse child behavior, more negative parental mood, and increased likelihood of losing temper and punishment.},
}

@article{Tupperetal2020,
author = {Paul Tupper  and Himani Boury  and Madi Yerlanov  and Caroline Colijn },
title = {{Event-specific interventions to minimize COVID-19 transmission}},
journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
volume = {117},
number = {50},
pages = {32038-32045},
year = {2020},
doi = {10.1073/pnas.2019324117},
URL = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2019324117},
eprint = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2019324117},
abstract = {We provide a simple model of COVID-19 transmission at workplaces, events, and other settings. We use data from reported single-event, short-duration outbreaks to estimate the transmission rate, number of contacts, and turnover at events. We use these to predict how many new infections are expected to occur at various events given the presence of a single infectious individual. We then determine which types of interventions will be the most effective in reducing the number of infections: reducing transmission rates (such as with masks), social distancing (reducing the number of people in contact), or bubbling (keeping contact groups small and consistent). COVID-19 is a global pandemic with over 25 million cases worldwide. Currently, treatments are limited, and there is no approved vaccine. Interventions such as handwashing, masks, social distancing, and “social bubbles” are used to limit community transmission, but it is challenging to choose the best interventions for a given activity. Here, we provide a quantitative framework to determine which interventions are likely to have the most impact in which settings. We introduce the concept of “event R,” the expected number of new infections due to the presence of a single infectious individual at an event. We obtain a fundamental relationship between event R and four parameters: transmission intensity, duration of exposure, the proximity of individuals, and the degree of mixing. We use reports of small outbreaks to establish event R and transmission intensity in a range of settings. We identify principles that guide whether physical distancing, masks and other barriers to transmission, or social bubbles will be most effective. We outline how this information can be obtained and used to reopen economies with principled measures to reduce COVID-19 transmission.}}

@Misc{2wayStata2020,
  author={Clement de Chaisemartin and Xavier D'Haultfoeuille and Antoine Deeb},
  title={{TWOWAYFEWEIGHTS: Stata module to estimate the weights and measure of robustness to treatment effect heterogeneity attached to two-way fixed effects regressions}},
  year=2019,
  month=Feb,
  howpublished={Statistical Software Components, Boston College Department of Economics},
  abstract={twowayfeweights estimates the weights and the measure of robustness to treatment effect heterogeneity attached to the two-way fixed effects regressions studied in Chaisemartin \& D'Haultfoeuille (2018), it can also compute inference measures for the weights.},
  keywords={fixed effects; two-way fixed effects; regression; weights; Stata},
  doi={},
  url={https://ideas.repec.org/c/boc/bocode/s458611.html},
}


@article{Mussidaetal2019,
title = {{Secondary school dropout and work outcomes in ten developing countries}},
journal = {Journal of Policy Modeling},
volume = {41},
number = {4},
pages = {547-567},
year = {2019},
issn = {0161-8938},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2018.06.005},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0161893818301121},
author = {Chiara Mussida and Dario Sciulli and Marcello Signorelli},
keywords = {School dropout, Work outcomes, Endogeneity, Developing countries, Gender},
abstract = {This paper analyzes the impact of secondary school dropout on the work outcomes of young people in ten developing countries. Understanding such a phenomenon is important because it may affect work prospects, exacerbate income inequality and determine macroeconomic lasting effects given that the formation of a skilled workforce is a key element of economic development and growth. When accounting for endogeneity, we find that secondary school dropout decreases the probability of being employed in non-elementary occupations, suggesting that unskilled workers fail to meet the increasing demand for a skilled workforce. Secondary school dropout, indeed, hinders the accumulation of adequate levels of human capital and anticipates entry into the unskilled labor market. Thus, policy-makers should aim at the extension and efficacy of compulsory education to the secondary level to avoid future under-education problems to promote a skilled workforce and encourage economic development and growth in the long run.}
}

@article{GB2021,
title = {{Difference-in-differences with variation in treatment timing}},
journal = {Journal of Econometrics},
volume = {225},
number = {2},
pages = {254-277},
year = {2021},
note = {Themed Issue: Treatment Effect 1},
issn = {0304-4076},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2021.03.014},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304407621001445},
author = {Andrew Goodman-Bacon},
keywords = {Difference-in-differences, Variation in treatment timing, Two-way fixed effects, Treatment effect heterogeneity},
abstract = {The canonical difference-in-differences (DD) estimator contains two time periods, ”pre” and ”post”, and two groups, ”treatment” and ”control”. Most DD applications, however, exploit variation across groups of units that receive treatment at different times. This paper shows that the two-way fixed effects estimator equals a weighted average of all possible two-group/two-period DD estimators in the data. A causal interpretation of two-way fixed effects DD estimates requires both a parallel trends assumption and treatment effects that are constant over time. I show how to decompose the difference between two specifications, and provide a new analysis of models that include time-varying controls.}
}

@Misc{ClarkeTS2020,
  author={Damian Clarke and Kathya Tapia Schythe},
  title={{EVENTDD: Stata module to panel event study models and generate event study plots}},
  year=2020,
  howpublished={Statistical Software Components, Boston College Department of Economics},
  abstract={eventdd estimates a panel event study corresponding to a difference-in-difference style model where a series of lag and lead coefficients and confidence intervals are estimated and plotted. These lag and lead coefficients are all relative to the passage of an event of interest, which can occur at different moments in different units of the panel. eventdd produces panel event study graphs as well as standard regression output. As well as standard inference procedures, eventdd allows for non-standard inference techniques, such as wild-bootstrapped standard errors (interacting with the user-written boottest command).},
  keywords={event study; difference-in-difference; graphics; Stata},
  doi={},
  url={https://ideas.repec.org/c/boc/bocode/s458737.html},
}


@Misc{GBetal2019,
  author={Andrew Goodman-Bacon and Thomas Goldring and Austin Nichols},
  title={{BACONDECOMP: Stata module to perform a Bacon decomposition of difference-in-differences estimation}},
  year=2019,
  month=Jul,
  howpublished={Statistical Software Components, Boston College Department of Economics},
  abstract={bacondecomp shows a Bacon decomposition of difference-in-differences estimation with variation in treatment timing. The two-way fixed effects DD model is a weighted average of all possible two-group/two period DD estimators. The command generates a scatterplot of 2x2 difference-in-difference estimates and their associated weights. The data must be xtset and the variable list must include an outcome as the first item, and a treatment that can only turn from zero to one during the time period examined as its second item.},
  keywords={Bacon decomposition; DiD; difference-in-differences; Stata},
  doi={},
  url={https://ideas.repec.org/c/boc/bocode/s458676.html},
}


@article{Goodman-Bacon_Marcus_2020, 
title={{Using Difference-in-Differences to Identify Causal Effects of COVID-19 Policies}}, volume={14}, url={https://ojs.ub.uni-konstanz.de/srm/article/view/7723}, DOI={10.18148/srm/2020.v14i2.7723}, abstractNote={&lt;div class=&quot;page&quot; title=&quot;Page 1&quot;&gt; &lt;div class=&quot;layoutArea&quot;&gt; &lt;div class=&quot;column&quot;&gt; &lt;p&gt;Policymakers have implemented a wide range of non-pharmaceutical interventions to fight the spread of COVID-19. Variation in policies across jurisdictions and over time strongly suggests a difference-in-differences (DD) research design to estimate causal effects of counter-COVID measures. We discuss threats to the validity of these DD designs and make recommendations about how researchers can avoid bias, interpret results accurately, and provide sound guidance to policymakers seeking to protect public health and facilitate an eventual economic recovery.&lt;/p&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&gt; &lt;/div&#38;gt;}, number={2}, journal={Survey Research Methods}, author={Goodman-Bacon, Andrew and Marcus, Jan}, year={2020}, month={Jun.}, pages={153-158} }

@article{MACARTNEY2020807,
title = {{Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Australian educational settings: a prospective cohort study}},
journal = {The Lancet Child \& Adolescent Health},
volume = {4},
number = {11},
pages = {807-816},
year = {2020},
issn = {2352-4642},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30251-0},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352464220302510},
author = {Kristine Macartney and Helen E Quinn and Alexis J Pillsbury and Archana Koirala and Lucy Deng and Noni Winkler and Anthea L Katelaris and Matthew V N O'Sullivan and Craig Dalton and Nicholas Wood and D Brogan and C Glover and N Dinsmore and A Dunn and A Jadhav and R Joyce and R Kandasamy and K Meredith and L Pelayo and L Rost and G Saravanos and S Bag and S Corbett and M Staff and K Alexander and S Conaty and K Leadbeater and B Forssman and S Kakar and D Dwyer and J Kok and K Chant},
}

@article{VANLANCKER2020e243,
title = {{COVID-19, school closures, and child poverty: a social crisis in the making}},
journal = {The Lancet Public Health},
volume = {5},
number = {5},
pages = {e243-e244},
year = {2020},
issn = {2468-2667},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30084-0},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468266720300840},
author = {Wim {Van Lancker} and Zachary Parolin}
}

@article{TupperColijn2021,
    doi = {10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009120},
    author = {Tupper, Paul AND Colijn, Caroline},
    journal = {PLOS Computational Biology},
    publisher = {Public Library of Science},
    title = {{COVID-19 in schools: Mitigating classroom clusters in the context of variable transmission}},
    year = {2021},
    month = {07},
    volume = {17},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009120},
    pages = {1-20},
    abstract = {Widespread school closures occurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. Because closures are costly and damaging, many jurisdictions have since reopened schools with control measures in place. Early evidence indicated that schools were low risk and children were unlikely to be very infectious, but it is becoming clear that children and youth can acquire and transmit COVID-19 in school settings and that transmission clusters and outbreaks can be large. We describe the contrasting literature on school transmission, and argue that the apparent discrepancy can be reconciled by heterogeneity, or “overdispersion” in transmission, with many exposures yielding little to no risk of onward transmission, but some unfortunate exposures causing sizeable onward transmission. In addition, respiratory viral loads are as high in children and youth as in adults, pre- and asymptomatic transmission occur, and the possibility of aerosol transmission has been established. We use a stochastic individual-based model to find the implications of these combined observations for cluster sizes and control measures. We consider both individual and environment/activity contributions to the transmission rate, as both are known to contribute to variability in transmission. We find that even small heterogeneities in these contributions result in highly variable transmission cluster sizes in the classroom setting, with clusters ranging from 1 to 20 individuals in a class of 25. None of the mitigation protocols we modeled, initiated by a positive test in a symptomatic individual, are able to prevent large transmission clusters unless the transmission rate is low (in which case large clusters do not occur in any case). Among the measures we modeled, only rapid universal monitoring (for example by regular, onsite, pooled testing) accomplished this prevention. We suggest approaches and the rationale for mitigating these larger clusters, even if they are expected to be rare.},
    number = {7},
}



@book{Cattaneoetal2024,
author = {Mattias Cattaneo and Nicolas Idrobo and Rocio Titiunik},
title = {{A Practical Introduction to Regression Discontinuity Designs: Extensions}},
year = {2024},
publisher = {Cambridge University Press},
address = {Cambridge, UK}
}


@book{WorldBank2021,
author = {{World Bank}},
title = {{Acting Now to Protect the Human Capital of Our Children}},
year = {2021},
doi = {10.1596/35276},
address = {},
edition   = {},
URL = {https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/35276},
eprint = {https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/35276}
}

@misc{Haleettal2020,
  author = {Hale, Thomas and Sam Webster and Anna Petherick and Toby Phillips and Beatriz Kira},
  title = {{Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker}},
  howpublished = {Blavatnick School of Government. \url{https://covidtracker.bsg.ox.ac.uk/}},
  year = {2020},
  note = {Accessed: 2022-05-11}
}

@misc{UN2020Long,
  author = {{United Nations}},
  year = {2020},
  title = {{The Impact of COVID-19 on Latin America and the Caribbean}},
  howpublished = {Policy Brief},
  note = {Available online at \url{https://lac.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/sg_policy_brief_covid_lac.pdf}.  Accessed: 2023-01-04}
}

@misc{UN2020,
  author = {{United Nations}},
  year = {2020},
  title = {{The Impact of COVID-19 on Latin America and the Caribbean}},
  howpublished = {Policy Brief},
  note = {Accessed: 2023-01-04}
}

@misc{Economist2021Long,
  author = {{The Economist}},
  year = {2021},
  title = {{Latin America's silent tragedy of empty classrooms}},
  howpublished = {Article, \url{https://www.economist.com/the-americas/2021/06/19/latin-americas-silent-tragedy-of-empty-classrooms}},
  note = {Accessed: 2022-05-30}
}

@misc{Economist2021,
  author = {{The Economist}},
  year = {2021},
  title = {{Latin America's silent tragedy of empty classrooms}},
  note = {Accessed: 2022-05-30}
}

@article{Evansetal2020,
author = {Evans, Megan L. and Lindauer, Margo and Farrell, Maureen E.},
title = {{A Pandemic within a Pandemic — Intimate Partner Violence during Covid-19}},
journal = {New England Journal of Medicine},
volume = {383},
number = {24},
pages = {2302-2304},
year = {2020},
doi = {10.1056/NEJMp2024046},
    note ={PMID: 32937063},
}

@article{ErtenKeskin2022,
Author = {Erten, Bilge and Keskin, Pinar and Prina, Silvia},
Title = {{Social Distancing, Stimulus Payments, and Domestic Violence: Evidence from the US during COVID-19}},
Journal = {AEA Papers and Proceedings},
Volume = {112},
Year = {2022},
Month = {May},
Pages = {262-66},
DOI = {10.1257/pandp.20221011},
URL = {https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/pandp.20221011}}

@misc{StutzinVallejos2018LONG,
  author = {Sofia {Stutzin Vallejos}},
  year = {2018},
  title = {{Institutional violence against children in residential
care: A critical analysis of the Chilean alternative care system, from a children's rights perspective, and a review of family-based alternatives for deinstitutionalization}},
howpublished = {Thesis, available online at, \url{http://repositorio.conicyt.cl/bitstream/handle/10533/232955/TESIS\%20SOFIA\%20STUTZIN.pdf?sequence=1}},
URL = {http://repositorio.conicyt.cl/bitstream/handle/10533/232955/TESIS\%20SOFIA\%20STUTZIN.pdf?sequence=1},
  note = {Accessed: 2022-06-02}
}


@misc{StutzinVallejos2018,
  author = {Sofia {Stutzin Vallejos}},
  year = {2018},
  title = {{Institutional violence against children in residential
care: A critical analysis of the Chilean alternative care system, from a children's rights perspective, and a review of family-based alternatives for deinstitutionalization}},
howpublished = {Master Thesis, King´s College London}
}

@misc{UNICEF2021Long,
  author = {{UNICEF}},
  title = {{COVID-19 and School Closures: One year of education disruption}},
  year = {2021},
  howpublished = {Report, \url{https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/COVID19-and-school-closures-report.pdf}},
  note = {Accessed: 2022-05-30}
}


@misc{UNICEF2021,
  author = {{UNICEF}},
  title = {{COVID-19 and School Closures: One year of education disruption}},
  year = {2021},
  note = {Accessed: 2022-05-30}
}


@techreport{PAHO2021,
 title = {{Gendered Health Analysis: COVID-19 in the Americas}},
 author = {{Pan American Health Organization}},
 institution = "PAHO",
 type = "Technical reports",
 series = "PAHO/EGC/COVID-19",
 number = "21-0006",
 year = "2021",
 month = "December",
 doi = {10665.2/55432},
}

@article{Haleetal2021,
author = {Hale, Thomas and Angrist, Noam and Goldszmidt, Rafael and Kira, Beatriz and Petherick, Anna and Phillips, Toby and Webster, Samuel and Cameron-Blake, Emily and Hallas, Laura and Majumdar, Saptarshi and Tatlow, Helen},
title = {{A global panel database of pandemic policies (Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker)}},
journal = {Nature Human Behaviour},
volume = {5},
number = {4},
pages = {529--538},
year = {2021}
}

@article{Lippardetal2020,
author = {Lippard, Elizabeth T.C. and Nemeroff, Charles B.},
title = {{The Devastating Clinical Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect: Increased Disease Vulnerability and Poor Treatment Response in Mood Disorders}},
journal = {American Journal of Psychiatry},
volume = {177},
number = {1},
pages = {20-36},
year = {2020},
doi = {10.1176/appi.ajp.2019.19010020},
}



@article{Menaetal2021,
author = {Gonzalo E. Mena  and Pamela P. Martinez  and Ayesha S. Mahmud  and Pablo A. Marquet  and Caroline O. Buckee  and Mauricio Santillana },
title = {{Socioeconomic status determines COVID-19 incidence and related mortality in Santiago, Chile}},
journal = {Science},
volume = {372},
number = {6545},
pages = {eabg5298},
year = {2021},
doi = {10.1126/science.abg5298},
URL = {https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.abg5298},
eprint = {https://www.science.org/doi/pdf/10.1126/science.abg5298},
abstract = {Santiago, Chile, is a highly segregated city with distinct zones of affluence and deprivation. This setting offers a window on how social factors propel the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic in an economically vulnerable society with high levels of income inequality. Mena et al. analyzed incidence and mortality attributed to SARS-CoV-2 to understand spatial variations in disease burden. Infection fatality rates were higher in lower-income municipalities because of comorbidities and lack of access to health care. Disparities between municipalities in the quality of their health care delivery system became apparent in testing delays and capacity. These indicators explain a large part of the variation in COVID-19 underreporting and deaths and show that these inequalities disproportionately affected younger people. Science, abg5298, this issue p. eabg5298 The consequences of health care inequalities have been exacerbated during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in a large, economically vulnerable city. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected cities particularly hard. Here, we provide an in-depth characterization of disease incidence and mortality and their dependence on demographic and socioeconomic strata in Santiago, a highly segregated city and the capital of Chile. Our analyses show a strong association between socioeconomic status and both COVID-19 outcomes and public health capacity. People living in municipalities with low socioeconomic status did not reduce their mobility during lockdowns as much as those in more affluent municipalities. Testing volumes may have been insufficient early in the pandemic in those places, and both test positivity rates and testing delays were much higher. We find a strong association between socioeconomic status and mortality, measured by either COVID-19–attributed deaths or excess deaths. Finally, we show that infection fatality rates in young people are higher in low-income municipalities. Together, these results highlight the critical consequences of socioeconomic inequalities on health outcomes.}}

@article{GilUndurraga2020,
author = {Gil, Magdalena and Undurraga, Eduardo A.},
title = {{COVID-19 Has Exposed How ‘The Other Half’ (Still) Lives}},
journal = {Bulletin of Latin American Research},
volume = {39},
number = {S1},
pages = {28-34},
keywords = {COVID-19, inequality, pandemic, spatial segregation, vulnerability},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1111/blar.13175},
url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/blar.13175},
eprint = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/blar.13175},
abstract = {Socioeconomic factors are heavily shaping the COVID-19 pandemic in South America. Consequently, societies are now facing the stark effects of lockdown, while largely failing to stop the epidemic. In Chile, this has been amplified by decision-makers who have overlooked critical socio-spatial aspects of the epidemic. Precarious living conditions, together with spatial segregation and unstable domestic economies, help explain why mitigation strategies remain unsuccessful. The article also explores how political frameworks for approaching these issues may change because of the pandemic.},
year = {2020}
}

@article{Castilloetal2021,
title = {{The successful COVID-19 vaccine rollout in Chile: Factors and challenges}},
journal = {Vaccine: X},
volume = {9},
pages = {100114},
year = {2021},
issn = {2590-1362},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvacx.2021.100114},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590136221000310},
author = {Claudio Castillo and Pablo {Villalobos Dintrans} and Matilde Maddaleno},
keywords = {Vaccines, Chile, Implementation Science, COVID-19},
abstract = {As the COVID-19 pandemic continues causing problems around the world, Chile is facing a new episode of increasing cases and deaths. However, at the same time, the country has succeeded in providing vaccines for an important part of its population over a short period. What are the factors behind this successful process? What are the challenges faced by the country today? This article explores potential explanations for the “Chilean paradigm”, regarding the COVID-19 vaccine rollout. Borrowing from implementation science frameworks, the analysis proposed an alternative explanation—based on multiple actors, approaches, and history—as opposed to one in which the outcome is due mainly to the government’s performance. The rapid and extensive coverage of vaccination can be explained by the role played by the government and the academia in securing vaccines through a pragmatic approach; the capacity built at local level, as well as the coordination between the health system and local authorities; and favorable vaccine culture, developed through the implementation of the National Immunization Program. Short and long-term elements (such as investment in infrastructure and relationships between stakeholders, and actions carried out during the pandemic), as well as contextual factors (such as the political and socioeconomic context), provide a more complex story to explain the observed outcomes. While other countries could try to follow the Chilean example, the article shows that short-term actions are necessary but might not be sufficient to achieve results. At a global level, the situation calls for rethinking how countries will face these global challenges, including issues such as international cooperation and global health governance.}
}

@techreport{GarciaCowan2022,
 title = {{The Impact of School and Childcare Closures on Labor Market Outcomes during the COVID-19 Pandemic}},
 author = "Garcia, Kairon Shayne D and Cowan, Benjamin W",
 institution = "National Bureau of Economic Research",
 type = "Working Paper",
 series = "Working Paper Series",
 number = "29641",
 year = "2022",
 month = "January",
 doi = {10.3386/w29641},
 URL = "http://www.nber.org/papers/w29641",
 abstract = {A substantial fraction of schools and childcare facilities in the United States closed their in-person operations during the COVID-19 pandemic. These closures may carry substantial costs to the families of affected children. In this paper, we examine the impact of school and childcare closures on parental labor market outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic. In particular, we test whether COVID-19 school closures have a disproportionate impact on parents of school-age children (age 5-17 years old) and whether childcare closures affect parents of young children (age <5 years old) relative to others. Our results suggest that while closures have had little impact on whether parents work at all, they have had significant effects on whether parents work full time (at least 35 hours) and the number of hours worked per week. These effects are concentrated among low-educated parents, suggesting that such individuals had a more difficult time adjusting their work life to closures.},
}

@techreport{Hansenetal2022,
 title = {{Schools, Job Flexibility, and Married Women's Labor Supply: Evidence From the COVID-19 Pandemic}},
 author = "Hansen, Benjamin and Sabia, Joseph J and Schaller, Jessamyn",
 institution = "National Bureau of Economic Research",
 type = "Working Paper",
 series = "Working Paper Series",
 number = "29660",
 year = "2022",
 doi = {10.3386/w29660},
 URL = "http://www.nber.org/papers/w29660",
 abstract = {This study explores the effect of school reopenings during the COVID-19 pandemic on married women's labor supply. We proxy for in-person attendance at US K-12 schools using smartphone data from Safegraph and measure female employment, hours, and remote work using the Current Population Survey. Difference-in-differences estimates show that K-12 reopenings are associated with significant increases in employment and hours among married women with school-aged children, with no measurable effects on labor supply in comparison groups. Employment effects of school reopenings are concentrated among mothers of older school-aged children, while remote work may mitigate effects for mothers of younger children.},
}

@article{Baronetal2020,
title = {{Suffering in silence: How COVID-19 school closures inhibit the reporting of child maltreatment}},
journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
volume = {190},
pages = {104258},
year = {2020},
issn = {0047-2727},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104258},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272720301225},
author = {E. Jason Baron and Ezra G. Goldstein and Cullen T. Wallace},
keywords = {COVID-19, Child maltreatment, School closures},
abstract = {To combat the spread of COVID-19, many primary and secondary schools in the United States canceled classes and moved instruction online. This study examines an unexplored consequence of COVID-19 school closures: the broken link between child maltreatment victims and the number one source of reported maltreatment allegations—school personnel. Using current, county-level data from Florida, we estimate a counterfactual distribution of child maltreatment allegations for March and April 2020, the first two months in which Florida schools closed. While one would expect the financial, mental, and physical stress due to COVID-19 to result in additional child maltreatment cases, we find that the actual number of reported allegations was approximately 15,000 lower (27\%) than expected for these two months. We leverage a detailed dataset of school district staffing and spending to show that the observed decline in allegations was largely driven by school closures. Finally, we discuss policy implications of our findings for the debate surrounding school reopenings and suggest a number of responses that may mitigate this hidden cost of school closures.}
}

@techreport{BacherHicksetal2021,
 title = {{The COVID-19 Pandemic Disrupted Both School Bullying and Cyberbullying}},
 author = "Bacher-Hicks, Andrew and Goodman, Joshua and Green, Jennifer G and Holt, Melissa",
 institution = "National Bureau of Economic Research",
 type = "Working Paper",
 series = "Working Paper Series",
 number = "29590",
 year = "2021",
 month = "December",
 doi = {10.3386/w29590},
 URL = "http://www.nber.org/papers/w29590",
 }
 
@article{Barbozaetal2021,
title = {{A spatiotemporal analysis of the impact of COVID-19 on child abuse and neglect in the city of Los Angeles, California}},
journal = {Child Abuse \& Neglect},
volume = {116},
pages = {104740},
year = {2021},
issn = {0145-2134},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104740},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213420303951},
author = {Gia E. Barboza and Lawrence B. Schiamberg and Layne Pachl},
keywords = {COVID-19, Public health crisis, Child abuse and neglect, Spatiotemporal hot spots, Strong start index},
abstract = {Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2; COVID-19) has created an urgent need to identify child abuse and neglect (CAN) and efficiently allocate resources to improve the coordination of responses during a public health crisis. Objective: To provide unique insights into the spatial and temporal distribution of CAN in relation to COVID-19 outcomes and identify areas where CAN has increased or decreased during the
pandemic. Participants: Children under 18 years old reported to the Los Angeles Police Department for CAN. Setting: CAN incidents in the city of Los Angeles.
Methods: Negative binomial regression was used to explore associations between the implementation of social distancing protocols and reported CAN during COVID-19. Spatiotemporal analysis identified locations of emerging hot and cold spots during the pandemic. Associations between neighborhood structural factors (e.g., school absenteeism, poverty, unemployment, housing insecurity and birth assets) and hot and cold spot patterns were explored. Results: There was a statistically significant decline in reports of CAN during the COVID-19 pandemic but no significant trends following the implementation of social distancing measures (e.g. safer at home orders, school closures). Compared to consecutive cold spots, severe housing burden, the number of assets children have at birth, poverty, school absenteeism and labor force participation were significantly associated with new and intensifying hotspots of CAN during the COVID-19 pandemic. Conclusions: Our findings reinforce the utility of developing intervention strategies that minimize harm to children by targeting resources to specific challenges facing families enduring the COVID-19 experience.}
} 
 
@article{Brownetal2021,
title = {{The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Child Protection System Referrals and Responses in Colorado, USA}},
journal = {Child Maltreatment},
pages = {107755952110124},
year = {2021},
issn = {1077-5595},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595211012476},
url = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10775595211012476},
author = {Samantha M. Brown and Rebecca Orsi and Pang Ching Bobby Chen and Courtney L. Everson and John Fluke},
keywords = {abuse, child maltreatment, child protection, COVID-19, neglect},
abstract = {Although the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has amplified risk factors known to increase children’s vulnerability to abuse and neglect, emerging evidence suggests declines in maltreatment reporting and responding following COVID-19 social distancing protocols in the United States. Using statewide administrative data, this study builds on the current state of knowledge to better understand the volume of child protection system (CPS) referrals and responses in Colorado, USA before and during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic and to determine whether there were differences in referral and response rates by case characteristics. Results indicated an overall decline in referrals and responses during COVID-19 when compared to the previous year. Declines were specific to case characteristics, such as reporter and maltreatment type. Implications regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on child maltreatment reporting and CPS response are discussed.}
}
 
@article{Singhetal2020,
title = {{Impact of COVID-19 and lockdown on mental health of children and adolescents: A narrative review with recommendations}},
journal = {Psychiatry Research},
volume = {293},
pages = {113429},
year = {2020},
issn = {0165-1781},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113429},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016517812031725X},
author = {Shweta Singh and Deblina Roy and Krittika Sinha and Sheeba Parveen and Ginni Sharma and Gunjan Joshi},
keywords = {COVID-19, Lockdown, Mental health, Children, Adolescents},
abstract = {Background
COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown has brought about a sense of fear and anxiety around the globe. This phenomenon has led to short term as well as long term psychosocial and mental health implications for children and adolescents. The quality and magnitude of impact on minors is determined by many vulnerability factors like developmental age, educational status, pre-existing mental health condition, being economically underprivileged or being quarantined due to infection or fear of infection.
Aims
This paper is aimed at narratively reviewing various articles related to mental-health aspects of children and adolescents impacted by COVID-19 pandemic and enforcement of nationwide or regional lockdowns to prevent further spread of infection.
Methodology
We conducted a review and collected articles and advisories on mental health aspects of children and adolescents during the COVID-19 pandemic. We selected articles and thematically organized them. We put up their major findings under the thematic areas of impact on young children, school and college going students, children and adolescents with mental health challenges, economically underprivileged children, impact due to quarantine and separation from parents and the advisories of international organizations. We have also provided recommendations to the above.
Conclusion
There is a pressing need for planning longitudinal and developmental studies, and implementing evidence based elaborative plan of action to cater to the psycho social and mental health needs of the vulnerable children and adolescents during pandemic as well as post pandemic. There is a need to ameliorate children and adolescents’ access to mental health support services geared towards providing measures for developing healthy coping mechanisms during the current crisis. For this innovative child and adolescent mental health policies policies with direct and digital collaborative networks of psychiatrists, psychologists, paediatricians, and community volunteers are deemed necessary.}
}

@article{Vahia2020,
    author = {Vahia, Ipsit V. and Jeste, Dilip V. and Reynolds, Charles F., III},
    title = {{Older Adults and the Mental Health Effects of COVID-19}},
    journal = {JAMA},
    volume = {324},
    number = {22},
    pages = {2253-2254},
    year = {2020},
    month = {12},
    abstract = "{As the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) began to spread in the US in early 2020, older adults experienced disproportionately greater adverse effects from the pandemic including more severe complications, higher mortality, concerns about disruptions to their daily routines and access to care, difficulty in adapting to technologies like telemedicine, and concerns that isolation would exacerbate existing mental health conditions. Older adults tend to have lower stress reactivity, and in general, better emotional regulation and well-being than younger adults, but given the scale and magnitude of the pandemic, there was concern about a mental health crisis among older adults. The concern pertained to older adults both at home and in residential care facilities, where contact with friends, family, and caregivers became limited. The early data suggest a much more nuanced picture. This Viewpoint summarizes evidence suggesting that, counter to expectation, older adults as a group may be more resilient to the anxiety, depression, and stress-related mental health disorders characteristic of younger populations during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic.}",
    issn = {0098-7484},
    doi = {10.1001/jama.2020.21753},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.21753},
    eprint = {https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/articlepdf/2773479/jama\_vahia\_2020\_vp\_200231\_1607119495.51442.pdf},
}



@article{Chandra2022,
author = {Prakash Chandra Sukhwal  and Atreyi Kankanhalli },
title = {{Determining containment policy impacts on public sentiment during the pandemic using social media data}},
journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
volume = {119},
number = {19},
pages = {e2117292119},
year = {2022},
doi = {10.1073/pnas.2117292119},
URL = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2117292119},
eprint = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/pdf/10.1073/pnas.2117292119},
}
 
@article{Bullingeretal2020,
title = {{COVID-19 and Alleged Child Maltreatment}},
journal = {SSRN Electronic Journal},
year = {2020},
issn = {1556-5068},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3702704},
url = {https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3702704},
author = {Lindsey Bullinger and Angela Boy and Megan Feely and Stephen Messner and Kerri Raissian and William Schneider and Shannon Self-Brown},
keywords = {child abuse and neglect, COVID-19, child protection},
abstract = {The policy response to the COVID-19 pandemic led to a sudden and unprecedented increase in the amount of time parents and children spent at home. We use real-time, novel mobile phone movement data and quick-release administrative data on child maltreatment referrals to examine how time at home is related to allegations of child maltreatment. Findings show that allegations plummeted by approximately 55\% following the emergency declaration relative to 2018 and 2019 trends during the same time period. However, time at home during the pandemic was associated with more referrals, particularly of supervisory neglect, with the largest impacts in metropolitan counties, counties with historically lower referral rates, and counties with more poverty. We also find that more time at home is positively related to educational neglect referrals among children in areas with high poverty and higher referral rates. Our results highlight how children and families are faring during the pandemic, and we offer several clinical and policy implications.}
}

@article{RomanoWolf2005,
author = {Joseph P Romano and Michael Wolf},
title = {{Exact and Approximate Stepdown Methods for Multiple Hypothesis Testing}},
journal = {Journal of the American Statistical Association},
volume = {100},
number = {469},
pages = {94-108},
year  = {2005},
publisher = {Taylor & Francis},
}

@article{Floretal2022,
author = {Flor, Luisa S and et al.},
title = {{Quantifying the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender equality on health, social, and economic indicators: a comprehensive review of data from March, 2020, to September, 2021}},
journal = {Lancet},
volume = {online first},
year  = {2022},
doi = {10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00008-3},
}

@article{Altonjietal2005,
author = {Altonji, Joseph G. and Elder, Todd E. and Taber, Christopher R.},
title = {{Selection on Observed and Unobserved Variables: Assessing the Effectiveness of Catholic Schools}},
journal = {Journal of Political Economy},
volume = {113},
number = {1},
pages = {151-184},
year = {2005},
doi = {10.1086/426036},
}

@article{ClarkeTS2021,
author = {Damian Clarke and Kathya Tapia-Schythe},
title ={{Implementing the panel event study}},
journal = {The Stata Journal},
volume = {21},
number = {4},
pages = {853-884},
year = {2021},
doi = {10.1177/1536867X211063144},
}

@article{Autor2003,
author = {Autor, David H.},
title = {{Outsourcing at Will: The Contribution of Unjust Dismissal Doctrine to the Growth of Employment Outsourcing}},
journal = {Journal of Labor Economics},
volume = {21},
number = {1},
pages = {1-42},
year = {2003},
doi = {10.1086/344122},
}



@article{CGM2008,
    author = {Cameron, A. Colin and Gelbach, Jonah B. and Miller, Douglas L.},
    title = {{Bootstrap-Based Improvements for Inference with Clustered Errors}},
    journal = {The Review of Economics and Statistics},
    volume = {90},
    number = {3},
    pages = {414-427},
    year = {2008},
    month = {08},
    abstract = "{Researchers have increasingly realized the need to account for within-group dependence in estimating standard errors of regression parameter estimates. The usual solution is to calculate cluster-robust standard errors that permit heteroskedasticity and within-cluster error correlation, but presume that the number of clusters is large. Standard asymptotic tests can over-reject, however, with few (five to thirty) clusters. We investigate inference using cluster bootstrap-t procedures that provide asymptotic refinement. These procedures are evaluated using Monte Carlos, including the example of Bertrand, Duflo, and Mullainathan (2004). Rejection rates of 10\\% using standard methods can be reduced to the nominal size of 5\\% using our methods.}",
    issn = {0034-6535},
    doi = {10.1162/rest.90.3.414},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.90.3.414},
    eprint = {https://direct.mit.edu/rest/article-pdf/90/3/414/1614600/rest.90.3.414.pdf},
}




@article{dCDH2020,
Author = {de Chaisemartin, Clément and D'Haultf{\oe}uille, Xavier},
Title = {{Two-Way Fixed Effects Estimators with Heterogeneous Treatment Effects}},
Journal = {American Economic Review},
Volume = {110},
Number = {9},
Year = {2020},
Month = {September},
Pages = {2964-96},
DOI = {10.1257/aer.20181169},
URL = {https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/aer.20181169}}

@article{Bhalotraetal2019,
    author = {Bhalotra, Sonia and Kambhampati, Uma and Rawlings, Samantha and Siddique, Zahra},
    title = {{Intimate Partner Violence: The Influence of Job Opportunities for Men and Women}},
    journal = {The World Bank Economic Review},
    volume = {35},
    number = {2},
    pages = {461-479},
    year = {2019},
    month = {11},
    abstract = "{This study examines the association of unemployment variation with intimate partner violence using representative data from thirty-one developing countries, from 2005 to 2016. It finds that a 1 percent increase in the male unemployment rate is associated with an increase in the incidence of physical violence against women by 0.50 percentage points, or 2.75 percent. This is consistent with financial and psychological stress generated by unemployment. Female unemployment rates have the opposite effect, a 1 percent decrease being associated with an increase in the probability of victimization of 0.52 percentage points, or 2.87 percent. That an improvement in women's employment opportunities is associated with increased violence is consistent with male backlash. The study finds that this pattern of behaviors emerges entirely from countries in which women have more limited access to divorce than men.}",
    issn = {0258-6770},
    doi = {10.1093/wber/lhz030},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhz030},
    eprint = {https://academic.oup.com/wber/article-pdf/35/2/461/37750554/lhz030.pdf},
}




@article{Ruhm2016,
author = {Ruhm, Christopher J.},
title = {{Health Effects of Economic Crises}},
journal = {Health Economics},
volume = {25},
number = {S2},
pages = {6-24},
keywords = {macroeconomic conditions, economic crises, health, mortality},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.3373},
url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/hec.3373},
eprint = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/hec.3373},
abstract = {Abstract This analysis summarizes prior research and uses national, US state and county-level data from 1976 to 2013 to examine whether the mortality effects of economic crises differ in kind from those of the more typical fluctuations. The tentative conclusion is that economic crises affect mortality rates (and presumably other measures of health) in the same way as less severe downturns – leading to improvements in physical health. The effects of severe national recessions in the USA appear to have a beneficial effect on mortality that is roughly twice as strong as that predicted by the elevated unemployment rates alone, while the higher predicted rate of suicides during typical periods of economic weakness is approximately offset during severe recessions. No consistent pattern is obtained for more localized economic crises occurring at the state level – some estimates suggest larger protective mortality effects while others indicate offsetting deleterious consequences. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley \& Sons, Ltd.},
year = {2016}
}


@article{Bullingeretal2021,
title = {{COVID-19 and Crime: Effects of Stay-at-Home Orders on Domestic Violence}},
journal = {American Journal Of Health Economics},
volume = {7},
number= {3},
pages = {249-280},
year = {2021},
issn = {2332-3493},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1086/713787},
url = {https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/713787},
author = {Lindsey Rose Bullinger and Jillian B. Carr and Analisa Packham},
keywords = {Domestic Violence, COVID-19, crime},
abstract = {COVID-19 has led to an abrupt change in time spent at home, with many cities and states implementing official stay-at-home (SAH), or “lockdown" policies. Using cell phone block-level activity data and administrative 911 and crime data from the city of Chicago, we estimate the effects of the Illinois governor’s SAH order on calls for police service, crimes recorded by police, and arrests made relating to domestic violence. We find that the SAH order announcement increased time spent at home, leading to a decrease in total calls for police service, but a subsequent increase in domestic violence-related calls for police service. However, we find that official reports by police officers and arrests for domestic violence crimes fell by 6.8 percent and 26.4 percent, respectively. Declines in reported domestic violence crimes mirror drops in total reported crimes; however, the reduction for domestic violence crimes is around 5 times smaller than the decline in overall crime rates.}
}


@article{CHPR2020,
title = {{Hidden Violence: How COVID-19 School Closures Reduced the Reporting of Child Maltreatment}},
journal = {Latin American Economic Review},
volume = {29},
number = {4},
pages = {1--17},
year = {2020},
author = {Mar\'ia Padilla-Romo and Francisco Cabrera-Hern\'andez},
keywords = {Child maltreatment, Domestic Violence, COVID-19, School closures},
abstract = {This study examines how school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic affected the reporting of child maltreatment in Mexico City. We use a rich panel dataset on incident-level crime reports and victim characteristics and exploit the differential effects between school-age children and older individuals. While financial and mental distress due to the COVID-19 pandemic may result in additional cases of child maltreatment, synthetic control and difference-indifferences estimations document an average reduction in child maltreatment reports of 21\% and 30\%, respectively, with larger reductions among females and in higher-poverty municipalities. These results highlight the important role education professionals in school settings play in the early detection and reporting of domestic violence against school-age children.}
}

@article{Prettyman2021,
title = {{Underreporting Child Maltreatment during the Pandemic: Evidence from Colorado}},
journal = {Covid Economics},
pages = {10},
year = {2021},
url = {https://www.alexaprettyman.com/uploads/1/1/8/0/118046286/prettyman_dissertation_ch3.pdf},
author = {Alexa Prettyman},
abstract = {As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic schools closed abruptly in March 2020 and Colorado issued a stay-at-home order during the month of April. Subsequently, child maltreatment reporting dropped by 31 percent. This paper documents the decline in referrals and reports during the year in Colorado and predicts counterfactual estimates using two strategies. One strategy assumes the underlying behavior for child maltreatment was unchanged from 2019 to 2020. This approach implies that about 30,000 referrals went unreported over the year as a result of the pandemic. The second strategy assumes the economic distress brought about by the pandemic altered the underlying prevalence of child maltreatment. In this case, over 38,800 cases of child maltreatment might have gone undetected. Scaling these results to the national level suggests millions of child maltreatment referrals went unreported. I find that the largest reduction in reporting comes from the stay-at-home order, followed by school closings. Moreover, there is suggestive evidence that these missed children are suffering from neglect and not abuse. These findings quantify another hardship brought about by the pandemic, underreporting, and underscore the role mandatory reporters play in detecting child maltreatment.}
}


@article{Rapoportetal2021,
title = {{Reporting of child maltreatment during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic in New York City from March to May 2020}},
journal = {Child Abuse \& Neglect},
volume = {116},
pages = {104719},
year = {2021},
issn = {0145-2134},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104719},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213420303744},
author = {Eli Rapoport and Hailey Reisert and Emily Schoeman and Andrew Adesman},
keywords = {Child abuse, Child neglect, Mandated reporter, Coronavirus, COVID-19},
abstract = {Background: School closures and other public health responses have decreased the extent that children interact with mandated reporters and other professionals trained to detect child maltreatment. Objective: To assess associations between the pandemic public health response and the number of allegations of child abuse or neglect. Methods: This study analyzed monthly data from New York City of the number of child maltreatment allegations, stratified by reporter type (e.g., mandated reporter, education personnel, healthcare personnel), as well as the number of Child Protective Services (CPS) investigations warranting child welfare preventative services. SARIMA models were trained using data from January 2015 to February 2020 to predict expected values for March, April, and May 2020. Observed values were compared against predicted values at an alpha of .05. Results: Substantially fewer allegations of child maltreatment were reported than expected in March (-28.8\%, deviation: 1848, 95\% CI: [1272, 2423]), April (-51.5\%, deviation: 2976, 95\% CI: [2382, 3570]), and May 2020 (-46.0\%, deviation: 2959, 95\% CI: [2347, 3571]). Significant decreases in child maltreatment reporting were also noted for all reporter subtypes examined for March, April, and May 2020. Fewer CPS investigations warranted preventative services than expected in March 2020 (-43.5\%, deviation: 303, 95\% CI: [132, 475]). Conclusions: Precipitous drops in child maltreatment reporting and child welfare interventions coincided with social distancing policies designed to mitigate COVID-19 transmission. In light of these findings, educators and healthcare providers must be especially vigilant when engaging online with children and their families for signs of child abuse and/or neglect.}
}

@article{Pereda2020,
title = {{Family violence against children in the wake of COVID‑19 pandemic: a review of current perspectives and risk factors}},
journal = {Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health},
volume = {14},
number = {1},
pages = {1-7},
year = {2020},
issn = {1753-2000},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-020-00347-1},
url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13034-020-00347-1},
author = {Noem\'i Pereda and Diego A. D\'iaz-Faes },
keywords = {COVID-19, Violence, Developmental victimology, Risk factors, Children},
abstract = {The situation of crisis produced by the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic poses major challenges to societies all over the world. While efforts to contain the virus are vital to protect global health, these same efforts are exposing children and adolescents to an increased risk of family violence. Various criminological theories explain the causes of this new danger. The social isolation required by the measures taken in the different countries, the impact on jobs, the economic instability, high levels of tension and fear of the virus, and new forms of relationships have all increased levels of stress in the most vulnerable families and, therefore, the risk of violence. In addition, mandatory lockdowns imposed to curb the spread of the disease have trapped children in their homes, isolating them from the people and the resources that could help them. In general, the restrictive measures imposed in many countries have not been accompanied by an analysis of the access to the resources needed to reduce this risk. It is necessary to take urgent measures to intervene in these high-risk contexts so that children and adolescents can develop and prosper in a society which is likely to undergo profound changes, but in which the defense of their rights and protection must remain a major priority.}
}

@article{CurriSpatz2010,
title = {{Long-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect on Adult Economic Well-Being}},
journal = {Child Maltreatment},
volume = {15},
number= {2},
pages = {111-120},
year = {2010},
issn = {1077-5595},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559509355316},
url = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077559509355316},
author = {Janet Currie and Cathy Spatz Widom},
keywords = {childhood maltreatment, abuse, neglect, prospective cohort design, economic consequences},
abstract = {Child abuse and neglect represent major threats to child health and well-being; however, little is known about consequences for adult economic outcomes. Using a prospective cohort design, court substantiated cases of childhood physical and sexual abuse and neglect during 1967—1971 were matched with nonabused and nonneglected children and followed into adulthood (mean age 41). Outcome measures of economic status and productivity were assessed in 2003—2004 (N = 807). Results indicate that adults with documented histories of childhood abuse and/or neglect have lower levels of education, employment, earnings, and fewer assets as adults, compared to matched control children. There is a 14\% gap between individuals with histories of abuse/neglect and controls in the probability of employment in middle age, controlling for background characteristics. Maltreatment appears to affect men and women differently, with larger effects for women than men. These new findings demonstrate that abused and neglected children experience large and enduring economic consequences.}
}


@article{CurrieTekin2012,
title = {{Understanding the Cycle: Childhood Maltreatment and Future Crime}},
journal = {Journal of Human Resources},
volume = {47},
number= {2},
pages = {509–549},
year = {2012},
issn = {1548-8004},
doi = {10.1353/jhr.2012.0017},
url = {https://muse.jhu.edu/article/470797},
author = {Janet Currie and Erdal Tekin},
abstract = {Child maltreatment is a major social problem. This paper focuses on measuring the relationship between child maltreatment and crime using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health). We focus on crime because it is one of the most costly potential outcomes of maltreatment. Our work addresses two main limitations of the existing literature on child maltreatment. First, we use a large national sample, and investigate different types of maltreatment in a unified framework. Second, we pay careful attention to controlling for possible confounders using a variety of statistical methods that make differing assumptions. The results suggest that maltreatment greatly increases the probability of engaging in crime and that the probability increases with the experience of multiple forms of maltreatment.}
}


@techreport{fitzpatrick2020OLD,
title = {{Beyond Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic: The Role of Teachers and Schools in Reporting Child Maltreatment}},
author = {Fitzpatrick, Maria and Benson, Cassandra and Bondurant, Samuel R.},
institution = {National Bureau of Economic Research},
type = {NBER Working Papers},
number = {27033},
year = {2020},
url = {https://EconPapers.repec.org/RePEc:nbr:nberwo:27033},
abstract = {Nearly 4 in 10 children report experiencing maltreatment by adulthood. Early detection mitigates maltreatment’s negative effects. Yet factors that drive early detection remain understudied. We examine one possible source of early detection: educators in school settings. Administrative data on reports of child maltreatment across the U.S. over a 14-year period allows us to use two different regression discontinuity methods, one based on school-entry laws and one on school calendars. Both methods show education professionals are reporting cases that would have been missed otherwise. These findings suggest that improved training and support of educators may improve society's ability to help children and families.},
}
@article {fitzpatrick2020,
	author = {Benson, Cassandra and Fitzpatrick, Maria D. and Bondurant, Samuel},
	title = {{Beyond Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic: The Role of Teachers and Schools in Reporting Child Maltreatment}},
	elocation-id = {0319-10084R2},
	year = {2022},
	doi = {10.3368/jhr.0319-10084R2},
	publisher = {University of Wisconsin Press},
	abstract = {Nearly 4 in 10 children report experiencing maltreatment by adulthood. Educators in school settings may be crucial for early detection that mitigates maltreatment{\textquoteright}s negative effects. Administrative data on reports of child maltreatment across the U.S. over 14 years allows us to use two different regression discontinuity methods, one based on school-entry laws and one on school calendars, to identify the role of educators in reporting. Both methods show educators are reporting cases that would otherwise go unreported. These findings are relevant for understanding the consequences of school closures during the COVID-19 pandemic, and for improving identification and reporting.},
	issn = {0022-166X},
	URL = {https://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2022/07/06/jhr.0319-10084R2},
	eprint = {https://jhr.uwpress.org/content/early/2022/07/06/jhr.0319-10084R2.full.pdf},
	journal = {Journal of Human Resources}
}

@article{Chettyetal2023,
    author = {Chetty, Raj and Friedman, John N and Stepner, Michael and Opportunity Insights Team },
    title = "{The Economic Impacts of COVID-19: Evidence from a New Public Database Built Using Private Sector Data}",
    journal = {The Quarterly Journal of Economics},
    volume = {139},
    number = {2},
    pages = {829-889},
    year = {2023},
    month = {10},
    abstract = "{We build a publicly available database that tracks economic activity in the United States at a granular level in real time using anonymized data from private companies. We report weekly statistics on consumer spending, business revenues, job postings, and employment rates disaggregated by county, sector, and income group. Using the publicly available data, we show how the COVID-19 pandemic affected the economy by analyzing heterogeneity in its effects across subgroups. High-income individuals reduced spending sharply in March 2020, particularly in sectors that require in-person interaction. This reduction in spending greatly reduced the revenues of small businesses in affluent, dense areas. Those businesses laid off many of their employees, leading to widespread job losses, especially among low-wage workers in such areas. High-wage workers experienced a V-shaped recession that lasted a few weeks, whereas low-wage workers experienced much larger, more persistent job losses. Even though consumer spending and job postings had recovered fully by December 2021, employment rates in low-wage jobs remained depressed in areas that were initially hard hit, indicating that the temporary fall in labor demand led to a persistent reduction in labor supply. Building on this diagnostic analysis, we evaluate the effects of fiscal stimulus policies designed to stem the downward spiral in economic activity. Cash stimulus payments led to sharp increases in spending early in the pandemic, but much smaller responses later in the pandemic, especially for high-income households. Real-time estimates of marginal propensities to consume provided better forecasts of the impacts of subsequent rounds of stimulus payments than historical estimates. Overall, our findings suggest that fiscal policies can stem secondary declines in consumer spending and job losses, but cannot restore full employment when the initial shock to consumer spending arises from health concerns. More broadly, our analysis demonstrates how public statistics constructed from private sector data can support many research and real-time policy analyses, providing a new tool for empirical macroeconomics.}",
    issn = {0033-5533},
    doi = {10.1093/qje/qjad048},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjad048},
    eprint = {https://academic.oup.com/qje/article-pdf/139/2/829/57123523/qjad048.pdf},
}




@article{Lindoetal2018,
title = {{Caution! Men not at work: Gender-specific labor market conditions and child maltreatment}},
journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
volume = {163},
pages = {77-98},
year = {2018},
issn = {0047-2727},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2018.04.007},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0047272718300689},
author = {Jason M. Lindo and Jessamyn Schaller and Benjamin Hansen},
keywords = {Child maltreatment, Abuse, Neglect, Unemployment, Job loss, Time use},
abstract = {This paper examines the effect of labor market conditions—measured through unemployment, mass layoffs and predicted employment—on child maltreatment using county-level data from California. Using these indicators, we separately estimate the effects of overall and gender-specific economic shocks. We find only modest evidence of a link between overall economic conditions and child maltreatment. However, analysis by gender reveals robust evidence that maltreatment decreases with indicators for male employment and increases with indicators for female employment. These opposite-signed effects are consistent with a theoretical framework that builds on household-time-use models and is supported by an analysis of time-use data, though we discuss other mechanisms that may also play important roles.}
} 
 
@article{takaku2021,
title = {{What the COVID-19 school closure left in its wake: Evidence from a regression discontinuity analysis in Japan}},
journal = {Journal of Public Economics},
volume = {195},
pages = {104364},
year = {2021},
issn = {0047-2727},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104364},
url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047272720302280},
author = {Reo Takaku and Izumi Yokoyama},
keywords = {School closures, Fuzzy RDD, Marital relationship, Children’s, weight, Mothers’ anxiety},
abstract = {To control the spread of COVID-19, the national government of Japan abruptly started the closure of elementary schools on March 2, 2020, but preschools were exempted from this nationwide school closure. Taking advantage of this natural experiment, we examined how the proactive closure of elementary schools affected various outcomes related to children and family well-being. To identify the causal effects of the school closure, we exploited the discontinuity in the probability of going to school at a certain threshold of age in months and conducted fuzzy regression discontinuity analyses. The data are from a large-scale online survey of mothers whose firstborn children were aged 4 to 10 years. The results revealed a large increase in children’s weight and in mothers’ anxiety over how to raise their children. On the outcomes related to marital relationships, such as the incidence of domestic violence and the quality of marriage, we did not find statistically significant changes. These findings together suggest that school closures could have large unintended detrimental effects on non-academic outcomes among children.}
}


@article{rodriguez2021,
title = {{The perfect storm: Hidden risk of child maltreatment during the COVID-19 pandemic}},
journal = {Child Maltreatment},
volume = {26},
number= {2},
pages = {139-151},
year = {2021},
issn = {1077-5595},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559520982066},
url = {https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1077559520982066},
author = {Christina M. Rodriguez and Shawna J. Lee and Kaitlin P. Ward and Doris F. Pu},
keywords = {child abuse and neglect, socioeconomic risk, prevention, public health, pandemic},
abstract = {The Covid-19 pandemic upended the country, with enormous economic and social shifts. Given the increased contact from families living in virtual confinement coupled with massive economic disarray, the Covid-19 pandemic may have created the ideal conditions to witness a rise in children’s experience of abuse and neglect. Yet such a rise will be difficult to calculate given the drop in official mechanisms to track its incidence. The current investigation utilized two studies conducted early in the pandemic to evaluate maltreatment risk. In the first cross-sectional study, parents (n = 405) reported increased physical and verbal conflict and neglect which were associated with their perceived stress and loneliness. In the second study, parents (n = 106) enrolled in a longitudinal study reported increased parent-child conflict, which was associated with concurrent child abuse risk, with several links to employment loss, food insecurity, and loneliness; findings also demonstrated increases in abuse risk and psychological aggression relative to pre-pandemic levels. Findings are discussed in the context of a reactive welfare system rather than a pro-active public-health oriented approach to child maltreatment, connecting with families through multiple avenues. Innovative approaches will be needed to reach children faced with maltreatment to gauge its scope and impact in the pandemic’s aftermath.}
}

@article{lindo2014,
title = {{Economic determinants of child maltreatment}},
journal = {Encyclopedia of Law and Economics},
pages = {1-10},
year = {2014},
doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7883-6_583-1},
url = {http://people.tamu.edu/~jlindo/EncyclopediaChildAbuse_PrePubVer.pdf},
author = {Jason M. Lindo and Jessamyn Schaller},
abstract = {This entry examines the economic determinants of child maltreatment. We first discuss potential mechanisms through which economic factors, including income, employment, aggregate economic conditions, and welfare receipt, might have causal effects on the rates of child abuse and neglect. We then outline the main challenges faced by researchers attempting to identify these causal effects, emphasizing the importance of data limitations and potential confounding factors at both the individual and aggregate levels. We describe two approaches used in the existing literature to address these challenges – the use of experimental variation to identify the effects of changes in family income on individual likelihood of maltreatment and the use of area studies to identify the effects of changes in local economic conditions on aggregate rates of maltreatment.}
}



@inproceedings{belkin2002using,
  title={{Using manifold stucture for partially labeled classification}},
  author={Belkin, Mikhail and Niyogi, Partha},
  booktitle={Advances in neural information processing systems},
  pages={929--936},
  year={2002}
}

@article{berard1994embedding,
  title={{Embedding Riemannian manifolds by their heat kernel}},
  author={B{\'e}rard, Pierre and Besson, G{\'e}rard and Gallot, Sylvain},
  journal={Geometric \& Functional Analysis GAFA},
  volume={4},
  number={4},
  pages={373--398},
  year={1994},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{coifman2005geometric,
  title={{Geometric diffusions as a tool for harmonic analysis and structure definition of data: Diffusion maps}},
  author={Coifman, Ronald R and Lafon, Stephane and Lee, Ann B and Maggioni, Mauro and Nadler, Boaz and Warner, Frederick and Zucker, Steven W},
  journal={Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America},
  volume={102},
  number={21},
  pages={7426--7431},
  year={2005},
  publisher={National Acad Sciences}
}


@article{tariq2021transmission,
  title={{Transmission dynamics and control of COVID-19 in Chile, March-October, 2020}},
  author={Tariq, Amna and Undurraga, Eduardo A and Laborde, Carla Castillo and Vogt-Geisse, Katia and Luo, Ruiyan and Rothenberg, Richard and Chowell, Gerardo},
  journal={PLoS neglected tropical diseases},
  volume={15},
  number={1},
  pages={e0009070},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Public Library of Science San Francisco, CA USA}
}

@article{bullinger2022evaluating,
  title={{Evaluating child maltreatment and family violence risk during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Using a telehealth home visiting program as a conduit to families}},
  author={Bullinger, Lindsey Rose and Marcus, Stevan and Reuben, Katherine and Whitaker, Daniel and Self-Brown, Shannon},
  journal={Infant mental health journal},
  volume={43},
  number={1},
  pages={143--158},
  year={2022},
  publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}

@article{li2022,
    author = {Li, Yige and Undurraga, Eduardo A and Zubizarreta, José R},
    title = {{Effectiveness of Localized Lockdowns in the COVID-19 Pandemic}},
    journal = {American Journal of Epidemiology},
    volume = {191},
    number = {5},
    pages = {812-824},
    year = {2022},
    month = {01},
    abstract = "{Nonpharmaceutical interventions, such as social distancing and lockdowns, have been essential to control of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. In particular, localized lockdowns in small geographic areas have become an important policy intervention for preventing viral spread in cases of resurgence. These localized lockdowns can result in lower social and economic costs compared with larger-scale suppression strategies. Using an integrated data set from Chile (March 3–June 15, 2020) and a novel synthetic control approach, we estimated the effect of localized lockdowns, disentangling its direct and indirect causal effects on transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Our results showed that the effects of localized lockdowns are strongly modulated by their duration and are influenced by indirect effects from neighboring geographic areas. Our estimates suggest that extending localized lockdowns can slow down SARS-CoV-2 transmission; however, localized lockdowns on their own are insufficient to control pandemic growth in the presence of indirect effects from contiguous neighboring areas that do not have lockdowns. These results provide critical empirical evidence about the effectiveness of localized lockdowns in interconnected geographic areas.}",
    issn = {0002-9262},
    doi = {10.1093/aje/kwac008},
    url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwac008},
    eprint = {https://academic.oup.com/aje/article-pdf/191/5/812/43557128/kwac008.pdf},
}

@article{widom2007,
  title={{A prospective investigation of major depressive disorder and comorbidity in abused and neglected children grown up}},
  author={Widom, Cathy Spatz and DuMont, Kimberly and Czaja, Sally J},
  journal={Archives of General Psychiatry},
  volume={64},
  number={1},
  pages={49--56},
  year={2007},
  publisher={American Medical Association}
}

@article{smith1995,
  title={{The relationship between childhood maltreatment and adolescent involvement in delinquency}},
  author={Smith, Carolyn and Thornberry, Terence P},
  journal={Criminology},
  volume={33},
  number={4},
  pages={451--481},
  year={1995},
  publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}

@article{thornberry2001,
  title={{The importance of timing: The varying impact of childhood and adolescent maltreatment on multiple problem outcomes}},
  author={Thornberry, Terence P and Ireland, Timothy O and Smith, Carolyn A},
  journal={Development and Psychopathology},
  volume={13},
  number={4},
  pages={957--979},
  year={2001},
  publisher={Cambridge University Press}
}


@article{vermeulen2022,
  title={{Child maltreatment during school and childcare closure due to the CoViD-19 pandemic}},
  author={Vermeulen, Samantha and Alink, Lenneke RA and van Berkel, Sheila R},
  journal={Child Maltreatment},
  pages={10775595211064885},
  year={2022},
  publisher={SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA}
}

@article{lee2021,
  title={{Parental social isolation and child maltreatment risk during the COVID-19 pandemic}},
  author={Lee, Shawna J and Ward, Kaitlin P and Lee, Joyce Y and Rodriguez, Christina M},
  journal={Journal of Family Violence},
  pages={1--12},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{bennett2021,
  title={{All things equal? Heterogeneity in policy effectiveness against COVID-19 spread in Chile}},
  author={Bennett, Magdalena},
  journal={World development},
  volume={137},
  pages={105208},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{bellei2021,
  title={{Models of regulation, education policies, and changes in the education system: a long-term analysis of the Chilean case}},
  author={Bellei, Cristian and Munoz, Gonzalo},
  journal={Journal of Educational Change},
volume={24},
  number={1},
  pages={49--76},
  year={2023},
  publisher={Springer}
}



@incollection{claro2021,
author={Claro, Susana and Valenzuela, Juan Pablo and Undurraga, Eduardo A. and Kuzmanic, Danilo and Cerda, Daniela},
    title = {Encuesta para monitoreo de colegios abiertos en tiempos de pandemia},
    booktitle = {Propuestas para Chile},
    publisher = {Centro de Politicas Públicas - Universidad Catolica de Chile},
pages={69--114},    
year = 2021 
}

@article{loiseau2021,
  title={{Physical abuse of young children during the COVID-19 pandemic: Alarming increase in the relative frequency of hospitalizations during the lockdown period}},
  author={Loiseau, M{\'e}lanie and Cottenet, Jonathan and Bechraoui-Quantin, Sonia and Gilard-Pioc, S{\'e}verine and Mikaeloff, Yann and Jollant, Fabrice and Fran{\c{c}}ois-Purssell, Ir{\`e}ne and Jud, Andreas and Quantin, Catherine},
  journal={Child Abuse \& Neglect},
  volume={122},
  pages={105299},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@TechReport{valenzuela2022,
  title = {{Resultados Primera Encuesta Nacional de Abuso Sexual y Adversidades de la Ni{\~n}ez}},
  author = {Valenzuela, E. and Murillo, J.A. and Santelices, M.P. and Hamilton, J. and Mu{\~n}oz, C.},
  type = {Presentation},
  institution = {CUIDA}, 
  year = {2022}
}

@article{ortiz2021,
  title={{Assessing child abuse hotline inquiries in the wake of COVID-19: Answering the call}},
  author={Ortiz, Robin and Kishton, Rachel and Sinko, Laura and Fingerman, Michelle and Moreland, Diane and Wood, Joanne and Venkataramani, Atheendar},
  journal={JAMA pediatrics},
  volume={175},
  number={8},
  pages={859--861},
  year={2021},
  publisher={American Medical Association}
}

@article{jara2021,
  title={{Effectiveness of an inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in children and adolescents: a large-scale observational study}},
  author={Jara, Alejandra and Undurraga, Eduardo A and Flores, Juan C and Zubizarreta, Jos{\'e} R and Gonz{\'a}lez, Carolina and Pizarro, Alejandra and Ortu{\~n}o-Borroto, David and Acevedo, Jaime and Leo, Katia and Paredes, Francisca and Bralic, Tamas and Vergara, Victoria and Leon, Felipe and Parot, Isidora and Leighton, Paulina and Su{\'a}rez, Paula and Rios, Juan C and Garc{\'\i}a-Escorza, Hugo and Araos, Rodrigo},
  journal={Lancet Regional Health - Americas},
  volume={21},
  pages={100487},
  year={2023},
  month={May},
}

@techreport{jara2021OLD,
  title={{Effectiveness of an Inactivated SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine in Children and Adolescents: A Large-Scale Observational Study}},
  author={Jara, Alejandro and Undurraga, Eduardo A and Flores, Juan Carlos and Zubizarreta, Jos{\'e} R and Gonzalez, Cecilia and Pizarro, Alejandra and Ortu{\~n}o-Borroto, Duniel and Acevedo, Johanna and Leo, Katherinne and Paredes, Fabio and others},
  year={2021},
  type = {{Preprint, SSRN. Available at \href{https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4035405}{https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract\_id=4035405}.  Accessed June 24, 2022.}}
}

@techreport{MinSal2022,
  title={{\emph{Vigilancia de Enfermedades Transmisibles de
Notificación Obligatoria}}},
  author={{Ministry of Health of the Government of Chile}},
  year={2022},
  type = {{Technical Document. Available at \href{https://www.minsal.cl/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ANEXO-04-2022.pdf}{https://www.minsal.cl/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/ANEXO-04-2022.pdf}.  Accessed June 24, 2022.}}
}

@article{puls2021,
  title={{Association of routine school closures with child maltreatment reporting and substantiation in the United States; 2010--2017}},
  author={Puls, Henry T and Hall, Matthew and Frazier, Terra and Schultz, Kelly and Anderst, James D},
  journal={Child Abuse \& Neglect},
  volume={120},
  pages={105257},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{krase2013,
  title={{Educational personnel as reporters of suspected child maltreatment}},
  author={Krase, Kathryn S},
  journal={Children \& Schools},
  volume={35},
  number={3},
  pages={147--154},
  year={2013},
  publisher={Oxford University Press}
}


@article{cerezo2004,
  title={{Improving child maltreatment detection systems: a large-scale case study involving health, social services, and school professionals}},
  author={Cerezo, M Angeles and Pons-Salvador, Gemma},
  journal={Child Abuse \& Neglect},
  volume={28},
  number={11},
  pages={1153--1169},
  year={2004},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{fallon2022,
  title={{An examination of past trends in school reports to child welfare: considerations for reported child maltreatment}},
  author={Fallon, Barbara and Filippelli, Joanne and Joh-Carnella, Nicolette and Collin-V{\'e}zina, Delphine and Lefebvre, Rachael and Moody, Brenda and Trocme, Nico and Quinn, Ashley},
  journal={Child ;altreatment},
  volume={27},
  number={1},
  pages={25--32},
  year={2022},
  publisher={SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA}
}

@article{mcdonald2022,
  title={{‘She didn't know how to go back’: School attendance problems in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic—A multiple stakeholder qualitative study with parents and professionals}},
  author={McDonald, Bront{\"e} and Lester, Kathryn J and Michelson, Daniel},
  journal={British Journal of Educational Psychology},
  year={2022},
  publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}

@techreport{prettyman2021child,
  title={{Child Maltreatment Referrals and Mandatory Reporting Laws}},
  author={Prettyman, Alexa},
  year={2021},
  institution={Working Paper}
}

@article{font2022,
  title={{The centrality of child maltreatment to criminology}},
  author={Font, Sarah A and Kennedy, Reeve},
  journal={Annual Review of Criminology},
  volume={5},
  pages={371--396},
  year={2022},
  publisher={Annual Reviews}
}

@article{kim2019,
  title={{Cumulative prevalence of onset and recurrence of child maltreatment reports}},
  author={Kim, Hyunil and Drake, Brett},
  journal={Journal of the American Academy of Child \& Adolescent Psychiatry},
  volume={58},
  number={12},
  pages={1175--1183},
  year={2019},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}


@article{stoltenborgh2015,
  title={{The prevalence of child maltreatment across the globe: Review of a series of meta-analyses}},
  author={Stoltenborgh, Marije and Bakermans-Kranenburg, Marian J and Alink, Lenneke RA and van IJzendoorn, Marinus H},
  journal={Child Abuse Review},
  volume={24},
  number={1},
  pages={37--50},
  year={2015},
  publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}

@article{abufhele2022,
  title={{Developmental Losses in Young Children from Pre-primary Program Closures during the COVID-19 Pandemic}},
  author={Abufhele, Alejandra and Bravo, David and L{\'o}pez B{\'o}o, Florencia and Soto-Ramirez, Pamela},
  journal={Comparative Education Review},
  volume={68},
  number={3},
  pages={423--442},
  year={2024},
  publisher={The University of Chicago Press Chicago, IL}
}
@article{viner2022,
  title={{School closures during social lockdown and mental health, health behaviors, and well-being among children and adolescents during the first COVID-19 wave: a systematic review}},
  author={Viner, Russell and Russell, Simon and Saulle, Rosella and Croker, Helen and Stansfield, Claire and Packer, Jessica and Nicholls, Dasha and Goddings, Anne-Lise and Bonell, Chris and Hudson, Lee and others},
  journal={JAMA pediatrics},
  year={2022}
}

@article{nguyen2021,
  title={{Calculating the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on child abuse and neglect in the US}},
  author={Nguyen, Loc H},
  journal={Child Abuse \& Neglect},
  volume={118},
  pages={105136},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{Bitlretal2020,
 ISSN = {00072303, 15334465},
 URL = {https://www.jstor.org/stable/26996638},
 abstract = {The COVID-19 crisis has led to spiking unemployment rates with disproportionate impacts on low-income families. School and child-care center closures have also meant lost free and reduced-price school meals. Food prices have increased sharply, leading to reduced purchasing power for families with limited income. The Families First Coronavirus Response Act and the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act constituted a robust response, including expansions to unemployment insurance (expansions in eligibility and a $600 per week supplement), a onetime payment of $1,200 per adult and $500 per dependent, an increase in SNAP payments, and the launch of the Pandemic EBT program to replace lost school meals. Despite these effort   nes, real-time data show significant distress—notably, food insecurity rates have increased almost three times over the pre-COVID-19 rates and food pantry use has also spiked. In this paper, we explore why there is so much unmet need despite a robust policy response. We provide evidence for three explanations: (1) timing—relief came with a substantial delay, due to overwhelmed unemployment insurance (UI) systems and the need to implement new programs; (2) magnitude—payments outside UI are modest; and (3) coverage gaps—access is lower for some groups, and other groups are statutorily excluded.},
 author = {Marianne P. Bitler and Hilary W. Hoynes and Diane Whitmore Schanzenbach},
 journal = {Brookings Papers on Economic Activity},
 number = {},
 pages = {119--145},
 publisher = {Brookings Institution Press},
 title = {{The Social Safety Net in the Wake of COVID-19}},
 urldate = {2024-10-14},
 volume = {},
 year = {2020}
}

@article{bullinger2021neglected,
  title={{The neglected ones: Time at home during COVID-19 and child maltreatment}},
  author={Bullinger, Lindsey Rose and Raissian, Kerri M and Feely, Megan and Schneider, William J},
  journal={Children and youth services review},
  volume={131},
  pages={106287},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}


@incollection{munoz2023,
  author={Mu{\~n}oz-Guzman, Carolina and Bru{\~n}ol, Miguel Cillero and Bernasconi, Mariana},
title={{20 The Chilean Child Protection System}},
    booktitle = {The Oxford Handbook of Child Protection Systems},
    publisher ={Oxford University Press} ,
pages = {399-422},
    year =  {2023}
}

@TechReport{gale2016,
  title={{Alternative Child Care and Deinstitutionalisation in Central and South America}},
  author={Gale, Chrissie},
institution = {CELCIS, European Comission \& SOS Children's Villages},
howpublished={Published online at \url{https://www.sos-childrensvillages.org/}.  Accessed 10/05/2023.},
  year={2016}

}

@article{de2016,
  title={{Redise{\~n}ando el sistema de protecci{\'o}n a la infancia en chile}},
  author={de Iruarrizaga Tagle, Francisca},
  journal={Estudios P{\'u}blicos},
  volume={141},
  pages={7--57},
  year={2016}
}

@article{irarrazaval2016,
  title={{Estudio sobre sistemas de protecci{\'o}n especializada de ni{\~n}os, ni{\~n}as y adolescentes}},
  author={Irarr{\'a}zaval, I},
  journal={Santiago de Chile: Consejo Nacional de la Infancia-Ministerio Secretar{\'\i}a General de la Presidencia},
  year={2016}
}


@article{labrenz2023,
  title={{Deconstructing bias: The decision-making process among child protective service workers in Chile}},
  author={LaBrenz, Catherine A and Reyes-Quilodran, Claudia and Padilla-Medina, Diana and Arevalo Contreras, Miguel and Cabrera Pi{\~n}ones, Luz},
  journal={International Social Work},
  volume={66},
  number={3},
  pages={697--714},
  year={2023},
  publisher={SAGE Publications Sage UK: London, England}
}

@misc{deiruarrizaga2015,
  title={{Redesigning the Chilean child protection system: Understanding the problem to propose alternative care models and help family reunification}},
  author={DeIruarrizaga--Tagle, Francisca},
  year={2015},
  publisher={Sociedad y Pol{\'\i}ticas P{\'u}blicas. https://www. sociedadpoliticaspublicas. cl~…}
}


@misc{Mineduc2017,
  author       = {{Ministerio de Educaci{\'o}n}},
  title        = "{Maltrato, acoso, abuso sexual, estupro en establecimientos educacionales: Orientaciones para la elaboraci{\'o}n de un Protocolo de Actuaci{\'o}n}",
  howpublished = "Published onine at https://bibliotecadigital.mineduc.cl/handle/20.500.12365/2020. Accessed 04/10/2024",
  month        = "",
  year         = "2017",
  note         = "",
  annote       = ""
}

@misc{Super2018,
  author       = {{Superintendencia de Educaci{\'o}n}},
  title        = {{Resoluci{\'o}n Exenta N. 0482}},
  howpublished = "",
  month        = "",
  year         = "2018",
  note         = "",
  annote       = ""
}


@TechReport{sename2016,
  title = {{Anuario Estadistico Sename 2015}},
  author = {SENAME},
 howpublished={Published online at \url{https://www.sename.cl/web/index.php/anuarios-estadisticos-sename/}.  Accessed 10/05/2024.},
year = {2016}
}

@article{felson2002,
  title={{Reasons for reporting and not reporting domestic violence to the police}},
  author={Felson, Richard B and Messner, Steven F and Hoskin, Anthony W and Deane, Glenn},
  journal={Criminology},
  volume={40},
  number={3},
  pages={617--648},
  year={2002},
  publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}

@article{galvin2018,
  title={{Same question, different answers: Theorizing victim and third party decisions to report crime to the police}},
  author={Galvin, Miranda A and Safer-Lichtenstein, Aaron},
  journal={Justice Quarterly},
  volume={35},
  number={6},
  pages={1073--1104},
  year={2018},
  publisher={Taylor \& Francis}
}

@article{bergemann2024,
  title={{How Social Influence Affects Reporting: Toward an Integration of Crime Reporting, Whistleblowing, and Denunciation}},
  author={Bergemann, Patrick},
  journal={Annual Review of Sociology},
  volume={50},
  year={2024},
  publisher={Annual Reviews}
}

@article{xie2019,
  title={{Crime victims’ decisions to call the police: Past research and new directions}},
  author={Xie, Min and Baumer, Eric P},
  journal={Annual Review of Criminology},
  volume={2},
  number={1},
  pages={217--240},
  year={2019},
  publisher={Annual Reviews}
}

@article{goudriaan2006,
  title={{Neighbourhood characteristics and reporting crime: Effects of social cohesion, confidence in police effectiveness and socio-economic disadvantage 1}},
  author={Goudriaan, Heike and Wittebrood, Karin and Nieuwbeerta, Paul},
  journal={British journal of criminology},
  volume={46},
  number={4},
  pages={719--742},
  year={2006},
  publisher={Oxford University Press}
}

@article{leslie2020sheltering,
  title={{Sheltering in place and domestic violence: Evidence from calls for service during COVID-19}},
  author={Leslie, Emily and Wilson, Riley},
  journal={Journal of public economics},
  volume={189},
  pages={104241},
  year={2020},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{finkelhor2001,
  title={{Police reporting and professional help seeking for child crime victims: A review}},
  author={Finkelhor, David and Wolak, Janis and Berliner, Lucy},
  journal={Child Maltreatment},
  volume={6},
  number={1},
  pages={17--30},
  year={2001},
  publisher={Sage Publications}
}

@article{desmond2016,
  title={{Police violence and citizen crime reporting in the black community}},
  author={Desmond, Matthew and Papachristos, Andrew V and Kirk, David S},
  journal={American sociological review},
  volume={81},
  number={5},
  pages={857--876},
  year={2016},
  publisher={Sage Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA}
}

@article{kelley2022,
  title={{To report or not to report? A focal concerns analysis of victim reporting decisions following victimization}},
  author={Kelley, Shamika M and Zhang, Yan and O’Neal, Eryn Nicole},
  journal={Journal of Interpersonal Violence},
  volume={37},
  number={21-22},
  pages={NP19880--NP19908},
  year={2022},
  publisher={SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA}
}

@article{balmori2021,
  title={{Druglords don’t stay at home: COVID-19 pandemic and crime patterns in Mexico City}},
  author={Balmori-de-la-Miyar, Jose and Hoehn-Velasco, Lauren and Silverio-Murillo, Adan},
  journal={Journal of criminal justice},
  volume={72},
  pages={101745},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{nivette2021,
  title={{A global analysis of the impact of COVID-19 stay-at-home restrictions on crime}},
  author={Nivette, Amy E and Zahnow, Renee and Aguilar, Raul and Ahven, Andri and Amram, Shai and Ariel, Barak and Burbano, Mar{\'\i}a Jos{\'e} Arosemena and Astolfi, Roberta and Baier, Dirk and Bark, Hyung-Min and others},
  journal={Nature Human Behaviour},
  volume={5},
  number={7},
  pages={868--877},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Nature Publishing Group UK London}
}

@article{undurraga2021,
  title={{COVID-19 case fatality risk by age and gender in a high testing setting in Latin America: Chile, March--August 2020}},
  author={Undurraga, Eduardo A and Chowell, Gerardo and Mizumoto, Kenji},
  journal={Infectious Diseases of Poverty},
  volume={10},
  pages={1--11},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{lozano2020,
  title={{Measuring universal health coverage based on an index of effective coverage of health services in 204 countries and territories, 1990--2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019}},
  author={Lozano, Rafael and Fullman, Nancy and Mumford, John Everett and Knight, Megan and Barthelemy, Celine M and Abbafati, Cristiana and Abbastabar, Hedayat and Abd-Allah, Foad and Abdollahi, Mohammad and Abedi, Aidin and others},
  journal={The Lancet},
  volume={396},
  number={10258},
  pages={1250--1284},
  year={2020},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{berger2005,
  title={{Income, family characteristics, and physical violence toward children}},
  author={Berger, Lawrence M},
  journal={Child Abuse \& Neglect},
  volume={29},
  number={2},
  pages={107--133},
  year={2005},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{kuzmanic2023,
  title={{Socioeconomic disparities in the reopening of schools during the pandemic in Chile}},
  author={Kuzmanic, Danilo and Valenzuela, Juan Pablo and Claro, Susana and Canales, Andrea and Cerda, Daniela and Undurraga, Eduardo A},
  journal={International Journal of Educational Development},
  volume={100},
  pages={102805},
  year={2023},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{valenzuela2024,
  title={{Socioeconomic inequalities in opportunities and participation in in-person learning during the Covid-19 pandemic}},
  author={Valenzuela, Juan Pablo and Kuzmanic, Danilo and Cortes, Fernanda},
  journal={International Journal of Educational Development},
  volume={105},
  pages={102978},
  year={2024},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{stickle2020,
  title={{Crime rates in a pandemic: The largest criminological experiment in history}},
  author={Stickle, Ben and Felson, Marcus},
  journal={American Journal of Criminal Justice},
  volume={45},
  number={4},
  pages={525--536},
  year={2020},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{canals2020,
  title={{Epidemic trends, public health response and health system capacity: the Chilean experience in four months of the COVID-19 pandemic}},
  author={Canals, Mauricio and Cuadrado, Crist{\'o}bal and Canals, Andrea and Yohannessen, Karla and Lefio, Luis A and Bertoglia, Maria P and Eguiguren, Pamela and Siches, Izkia and Iglesias, Ver{\'o}nica and Arteaga, Oscar},
  journal={Revista Panamericana de Salud P{\'u}blica},
  volume={44},
  year={2020},
  publisher={Pan American Health Organization}
}

@article{hoeboer2024,
  title={{The impact of COVID-19 on crime: A systematic review}},
  author={Hoeboer, CM and Kitselaar, WM and Henrich, JF and Miedzobrodzka, EJ and Wohlstetter, B and Giebels, E and Meynen, G and Kruisbergen, EW and Kempes, M and Olff, M and others},
  journal={American Journal of Criminal Justice},
  volume={49},
  number={2},
  pages={274--303},
  year={2024},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{bullock2021,
  title={{How do Covid-19 stay-at-home restrictions affect crime? Evidence from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil}},
  author={Bullock, Jessie and Pellegrino, Ana Paula},
  journal={Econom\'ia},
  volume={22},
  number={3},
  pages={147--163},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Elsevier}
}

@article{balmori2024,
  title={{Shifts in property crime patterns during the COVID-19 pandemic in Mexico}},
  author={Balmori-de-la-Miyar, Jose and Sobrino, Fernanda and Silverio-Murillo, Adan and Prudencio, Daniel},
  journal={Journal of Experimental Criminology},
  pages={1--18},
  year={2024},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{trajtenberg2024,
  title={{The heterogeneous effects of COVID-19 lockdowns on crime across the world}},
  author={Trajtenberg, N and Fossati, S and Diaz, C and Nivette, AE and Aguilar, R and Ahven, A and Andrade, L and Amram, S and Ariel, B and Arosemena Burbano, MJ and others},
  journal={Crime Science},
  volume={13},
  number={1},
  pages={22},
  year={2024},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{diaz2022,
  title={{Stay at home if you can: COVID-19 stay-at-home guidelines and local crime}},
  author={D{\'\i}az, Carlos and Fossati, Sebastian and Trajtenberg, Nicol{\'a}s},
  journal={Journal of Empirical Legal Studies},
  volume={19},
  number={4},
  pages={1067--1113},
  year={2022},
  publisher={Wiley Online Library}
}

@article{wilcox2018,
  title={{Situational opportunity theories of crime}},
  author={Wilcox, Pamela and Cullen, Francis T},
  journal={Annual Review of Criminology},
  volume={1},
  number={1},
  pages={123--148},
  year={2018},
  publisher={Annual Reviews}
}

@article{chen2021,
  title={{Measuring the impact of the COVID-19 lockdown on crime in a medium-sized city in China}},
  author={Chen, Peng and Kurland, Justin and Piquero, Alex R and Borrion, Herve},
  journal={Journal of experimental criminology},
  pages={1--28},
  year={2021},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@book{solar2022,
  title={{Crime, violence, and justice in Latin America}},
  author={Solar, Carlos and Ricart, Carlos A P{\'e}rez},
  year={2022},
  publisher={Routledge}
}

@incollection{silverio2023,
  title={{Families under confinement: COVID-19 and domestic violence}},
  author={Silverio-Murillo, Adan and de la Miyar, Jose Balmori and Hoehn-Velasco, Lauren},
  booktitle={Crime and Social Control in Pandemic Times},
  volume={28},
  pages={23--41},
  year={2023},
  publisher={Emerald Publishing Limited}
}

@article{perez2022,
  title={{Domestic violence reporting during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from Latin America}},
  author={Perez-Vincent, Santiago M and Carreras, Enrique},
  journal={Review of Economics of the Household},
  volume={20},
  number={3},
  pages={799--830},
  year={2022},
  publisher={Springer}
}

@article{massenkoff2022,
  title={{Activity-adjusted crime rates show that public safety worsened in 2020}},
  author={Massenkoff, Maxim and Chalfin, Aaron},
  journal={Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
  volume={119},
  number={46},
  pages={e2208598119},
  year={2022},
  publisher={National Acad Sciences}
}

@article{bhalotra2021,
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}

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@article{bourgault2021,
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  author={Bourgault, Shelby and Peterman, Amber and O’Donnell, Megan},
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@article{piquero2021,
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  author={Piquero, ALEX R and Jennings, Wesley and Jemison, Erin and Kaukinen, Catherine and Knaul, Felicia},
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@article{cappa2021,
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@article{berniell2021,
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@article{shidiqi2023,
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%%article%{angrist2022,
 % title={{The loss of human capital in Ukraine}},
  author={Angrist, Noam and Djankov, Simeon and Goldberg, Pinelopi and Patrinos, Harry},
  journal={Global Economic Consequences of the War in Ukraine Sanctions, Supply Chains and Sustainability},
  volume={26},
  year={2022}
}

@incollection{angrist2022,
    author={Angrist, Noam and Djankov, Simeon and Goldberg, Pinelopi and Patrinos, Harry},
  title={{The loss of human capital in Ukraine}},
    booktitle = {Global Economic Consequences of the War in Ukraine Sanctions, Supply Chains and Sustainability},
    publisher = {CEPR Press},
pages = {169-174},
    year = {2022}
}

@article{sandner2024,
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  journal={The Economic Journal},
  pages={ueae070},
  year={2024},
  publisher={Oxford University Press}
}
